Assignment 2 academia

June 5, 2017 | Autor: Odibei John | Categoria: Conflict Resolution
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Saint Monica University
Department of Public Policy
Name: Odibei John N.
Matric No: SBPP16IR041
Topic: "The role of culture or traditional societies (traditional councils) as instruments of resolving inter-tribal conflicts".
Conflict among humans is as old as the species. Since it is impossible for all members of given society to always agree on every issue, there had always been a way of dealing with this dissatisfaction. Before the advent of 'western-styled' conflict resolution mechanisms, many societies had their culturally developed institutions for conflict resolution and peace building. In the traditional African societies, conflict may generally exist whenever or wherever incompatible events occur and may result in "win-lose character". The resolution, transformation and management of conflict may however produce win-win situation too.1 Onigun Otite & Albert Defines conflict as "a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals" 2 Although recent thoughts on conflict proves that conflict can exist without the manifestation of violence, this definition shows the extent to which opposing sides in a conflict can reach; especially ethnic/inter-tribal conflicts. An ethnic/tribal group is a group of people having a common language and cultural values and historical heritage. These common factors bind them together and cause frequent interaction among the people in the group. In Nigeria, it is estimated that there are about 250 ethnic groups. Principal among these are Hausa-Fulani group, Yoruba group and the Igbo group who have attained majority status in their areas. In this paper, we shall consider Nigeria as one community; her experience of inter-tribal/ethnic conflicts such as Aguleri – Umuleri, Ife – Modakeke, Fulani – farmers, etc and their resolution through local traditional councils would examined.
Local councils within two main ethnic groups
Yoruba: Within this society, much emphasis is placed on royalty and age as a direction for leadership and cohesion. The Oba (king) and the elders sit and talk over issues until they agree. Cases of conflict or disagreement were thrashed out between parties; then peace and harmony restored. This council was known as the 'Chief-in-council' (Igbimo Ilu) in Yoruba land. It was the highest traditional institution for conflict resolution. Olaoba emphasized that there existed various community associations and guilds saddled with the responsibility of maintenance of peace and order in marketing operations include, stealing, debt and fraud. In certain circumstances, gods and ancestors (the living dead) are called upon, their spirit invoked and every one especially the disputants are reminded of the aftermath of their wrath if they refuse to say the truth.3 At the level of individual households, the 'Bale' (head) plays a major role in domestic conflict resolution. He resolved conflicts among co-wives, family members, truants, and street fights involving his children and his foster children or dependants. He scolded the trouble makers and appeased whoever was offended. The "bale" was to visit the offended person and thank him/her for accepting a peaceful resolution of the conflict. If the victim was not satisfied, he could take the case to the second court which is the court of the ward-chief (Ile-ejo ijoye Adugbo). This court had the mandate of trying civil cases and conducting investigations of criminal cases before transferring them to the king (Ile-ejo Oba). Inter-village conflicts were settled between the Obas of both villages and their council.
Igbo: The Igbo traditional institutions for conflict resolution was decentralised; they included: the family, Amala (council of elders), Okpara system (eldest male), Umuanna (clan), Umuada (female born in a town but married out), age grades, assembly of the people, Ohanaeze (assembly of the people and the king), hunters' Association, and agbara (local deities or oracles). The internal organization of these groups rested upon patrilineal clans and lineages. These groups were autonomous with regards to governmental processes, but social bonds were strong among them. The chief priest played a vital unifying role among the various clans. Any inter-clan conflict could be settled at the level of the council of elders, age grade or Obi (king). The Ezemoo (chief priest) was the final arbiter of any unresolved dispute. Serving as the mouthpiece of the gods, his verdict after consultation with the gods was seen as a final word from the Supreme Being.

Methods employed in resolution of conflict in Africa The methods of performing conflict resolution in the traditional African societies are as follows: mediation, adjudication, reconciliation, arbitration and negotiation
Factors fuelling inter-tribal conflicts in Nigeria
There is general agreement among scholars that a single explanation of violent conflicts in Nigeria is
Inadequate. Most violent ethnic conflicts in Nigeria have been traced to the root causes of greed, predatory rule, autocracy, and unresolved grievances, colonial heritage, dictatorship, alienation, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, infrastructural decay, hyper-ethnicity and religious intolerance. Worthy of mention was that the high unemployment rate, a result of the implementation of IMF's Structural Adjustment Program had contributed to the ethnic problem. A crop of youth, who were rendered underemployed by the adverse effects of these reforms on their productive activities in Aba metamorphosed into the Bakassi Boys vigilante group in 1998. The Bakassi Boys were involved in an ethnic riot in which 300 northern Nigerian migrants lost their lives. Other organisations including the Hisha in the north and the Oodua People's Congress (OPC) in the south-west also emerged and fuelled violence in the context of widespread frustrations.

Pre-colonial traditional Approaches to Conflict Prevention, Management & Resolution in Nigeria
Socialization: Most Nigerian cultures see human existence as unified, interlinked, and integrated in a web. From childhood, people were taught to live at peace with others and avoid a situation of trying to win at all cost in the case of conflict and dispute settlement. They were taught that a fight with other groups meant a fight their family relations
Inculcation of Myths: The use of proverbs, idioms, folktales and songs to describe the nature of the world and how to live in it was another way of preventing, managing and resolving conflicts in Africa. The need to live harmoniously with others and avoid violent conflict because of the dangers inherent in it was one of the reasons for inculcating these myths through the use of proverbs, idioms etc. on the children at tender age.
Use of Traditional Institutions in Conflict Monitoring: The institutions of family, council of elders, clan, female born of a village etc. were used in the task of conflict monitoring and prevention. Each family head is employed and mobilized to prevent conflict through peace education, conflict monitoring and mediation and reconciliation.
Institution and Celebration of Festivals: There were instituted celebrations of festivals during which the virtues of peace, harmonious living, honesty etc. were extolled in songs. Rituals and scarifies were performed to the village deities and ancestors foe peace, protection, good works, fertility etc.
Use of Sanctions: Sanctions were imposed on families and individuals who were seen to have contradicted the customs and traditions of the people in order to deter others from engaging in behaviours that would engender conflict. Sanctions were meted on such misbehaviour as stealing, wilful murder, incest, abuse of elders, wilful damage to property, lying, bearing false witness, poisoning, rape etc. Such sanctions ranged from those that were imposed by the deities such as accidents, sickness, death, famine, poverty, misery, barrenness and loss of children etc. to the ones imposed by the society in such as exile, ostracism, fines, compensation, restitution, rendering apology etc.
Use of Marriages: Marriage was one of the means to the prevention, management and resolution of conflict before slave trader, colonialism and religion changed the societal life of the indigenous Africans. Marriages reduced inter-group wars as children who possessed mixed blood were used to prevent, manage and resolve conflict. Most of those marriages were not just intra-tribal but inter-tribal and most times involved the royalty such as the one between Adaeze, the daughter of Obi Ossa; of Aboh and Amain, the king boy of Brass and that between King Ajaja's daughter and Alafin of Oyo and Alafin of Oyo's daughter and King Ajaja in 1730.5

Mediation
Mediation is an old method of conflict management surrounded by secrecy. "It involves non-coercive intervention of the mediators(s), called third party either to reduce or … go beyond or bring conflict to peaceful settlement."6 Olaoba, described mediation as a method of conflict resolution that had been so critical to traditional society. The mediators usually endeavoured that peace and harmony reigned supreme in the society at whatever level of mediation. Bia ba be'eran wi K'a si tun beran wi If we apportion blame to the guilty person we must do the same to the other party in conflict. Mediators are sought from within the communities or societies of the parties concerned. In most cases, elders were picked for this role. Their roles depended on traditions, circumstances and personalities, accordingly. These roles includes, pressurizing, making recommendations giving assessments, conveying suggestions on behalf of the parties, emphasizing relevant norms and rules, envisaging the situation if agreement is not reached, or repeating of the agreement already attained.
Adjudication In traditional Nigerian society, adjudication involves bringing all disputants in the conflict to a meeting usually in the chambers or compounds of family heads, quarter heads and palace court as the case maybe. Reconciliation
This was the most significant aspect of conflict resolution. It is the end product of adjudication. After the disputants have been persuaded to end the dispute, peace was restored. This restoration of peace and harmony was always anchored on the principle of 'give a little and get a little'. This principle buttresses the idea of the disputing parties giving concessions. A feast was usually organized to confirm the readiness of the conflicting parties towards reaching points of compromise.
At least, as characteristic of African traditional society, conflict resolution method is the use of arbitration. The reconciliation function is practiced by an authority figure that mediates between conflicting parties but is empowered to make binding judgments. The purpose is not to render a judgment in law but to reconcile the conflicting parties and its norms. The relationship between the authority and the community is cushioned by community representatives who advise authority.
Negotiation Negotiation aims at harmonizing the interests of the parties concerned. Thus, even when the conflict involves a member against his or her society, there is an emphasis on recuperation and reinsertion of errant member back into its place in society. The recovery of a dissident member can just as well be seen as the restoration of the harmony and integrity of the community, as the assertion of value consensus and social cohesion, so that the management of the conflict favours the concerns of both parties. In traditional Yoruba society, peace was negotiated. Apology for wrongs done to individuals and the entire community was a feature of negotiation. Such apology was channelled through Yoruba elders, compound heads and chiefs of high calibre in the society. It was done on the representative level or quasi-representation. The Babaogun (patron) played the role of a representative in the sense of conflict.7

Traditional strategies for conflict management in Nigeria
Several individuals and groups have embarked on new approaches to deal with unresolved grievances in Nigeria. Most of them were either formed by the local leaders or have their backing. A south-south social movement led by Isaac Adaka Boro in the 1960s preceded various organisations including the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), which was established in 1990. The Niger Delta People's Volunteer Force (NDPVF) and the Niger Delta Vigilantes (NDV) were established for the same purpose in 2003 and 2004, respectively. Similar organisations have been established across Nigeria: the Oodua People's Congress in the southwest, Hisha and Arewa People's Congress in the north and Egbesu Boys in the south-south. Their purpose was not to serve as armed resistance to the government or a tribal army but a platform for peaceful expression of public discontent of the people. These traditional councils were not arbitrary. Nwafo Nwanko and Nzelibe (1990) subscribe to the observation that African kingdoms are reputed for strict observance of the rule of law and the principle of natural justice.8
Africans strongly believe in the concept of 'communalism.' This is because of their belief that the individual is not alone, but is included under the umbrella of the community. "The individual is an amulet system which is instrumental in linking that person to one's environment on the basis of communication principles and conventions … Conflict management follows similar patterns in Africa. Emphasis is placed on internalised values. Value is placed on honesty, openness, empathy, community solidarity, and individual loyalty to the group, but not at the expense of recognised worth of the individual."9 Therefore, emphasis is placed on those links and patterns that promote the bond of strong and harmonious coexistence of groups in the community.
The Nigerian society has gone forward to develop the concept of peace builders and third neutral party. Each Nigerian ethnic group has its inbuilt mechanism support for peace. "The Yoruba concept of 'omoluabi', the Hausa concept of 'mutum-kirki' and the Igbo concept of 'ezigbu-nwa' introduce the relevance of ontological capacity for peace-building by cultured individuals"10. The three concepts signify individuals with exemplary behaviour. Individuals who occupy these positions are not to participate in violence irrespective of their anger level.

Some instances of local council Mediation and resolution in inter-ethnic conflicts
Village level mediation is very effective and takes place on a daily basis at the ward, village and district
levels. Family issues are handled by traditional rulers at all levels including Emirs or Chiefs depending on
proximity. In theory, an important Emir can never refuse to listen to a subject on the pretext that he is busy. Nonetheless, in reality, Emirs play their most important role in mediating and resolving larger-scale civil conflicts. The Northern Traditional Leaders' Forum has been reactivated with the Sultan of Sokoto as Chairman, meeting regularly to review the peace and security situation. All first class Chiefs and Emirs are members, in a structure reminiscent of the Northern House of Chiefs and indeed making use of the same building. The Forum has met three times in 2006 and on 17th August 2006, changed its name to a Council to reflect the increasing role it expects to play in peacemaking. This section provides some case histories of how conflict resolution by traditional rulers can play out in practice.

Kwara State: Lata farmer/pastoralist conflict conflict
The Kwara Emirate was called to assist in resolving the farmer/pastoralist conflict in Lata which had persisted for more than seven years, regularly claiming life and property. Before the intervention of the Emirate Council, Kwara state government's efforts to resolve the conflict had failed. A state government committee established in early 1999 deployed large number of policemen in the area but violence continued unabated. In late 2005, Ilorin Emirate Council established a committee of traditional rulers from Pategi, Liafigi, Senior Councillors from the Council, District, Village, Ward heads from the area, representatives of farmers and pastoralists to discuss the causes of the conflict and propose lasting solutions. By mid-2006 there had been no further outbreaks of trouble. Indeed the success of the committee is now being replicated to resolve the communal clashes in Offa in July, 2006.

Niger State: Grazing Rights in Kainji National Park – Intervention of Borgu Emirate Council Conflict persists over the rights of access in the Kainji National Park where pastoralist groups insisted that they be allowed to use the traditional stock route that passes through the Park against the policy of Park officials. Since 1995 there have been regular confrontations when the Niger State Government set up a committee to address the matter. Borgu Emirate Council intervened by bringing all the groups together for dialogue in 2004. At the end of the talks it was agreed that the pastoral group be allowed supervised access. The Emirate Council established a committee to oversee the implementation of the agreement. Pastoral leaders were expected to explain the agreement to their members adequately and ensure that there were no violations. The 2005/2006 dry season was a test period and it worked out successfully as no clashes were recorded. Niger State government has now urged all Emirate Councils in the state to copy and replicate the strategy of Borgu Emirate Council. Kontagora Emirate Council took up the challenge and had gone ahead to establish a nucleus committee which made its first attempt during the religious crisis of April 2004 in the aftermath of reprisal attacks in the wake of the killings of Muslims in Yelwa-Shendam, Plateau State. Where government could not achieve peace or prevent occurrence of crisis, the Emirate Councils have successfully carried out and evolved a peace process.


Kebbi State: Resolution of Conflicts over fish resources by the Argungu Emirate Council
When clashes broke out over ownership of a fishing pond between Silame and Augie communities in Kebbi State in 1996, the government deployed law enforcement agents. The Government also set up a committee to find out the remote causes of the conflict, establish the true ownership of the pond and then mediate between the warring communities. The disagreement and occasional clashes lasted for two years without any acceptable solution in spite of the government's effort. In early 1999 the District Head of Augie was asked by the Argungu Emirate Council to constitute a committee comprising village and ward heads in the area and elders from the disputed and neighbouring communities to mediate the crisis. The committee of the District Head mediated for two months and requested government to withdraw the security agents because peace had been restored. Government was reluctant to oblige, but eventually did so after a second News item on Radio Plateau Jos on 17th August 2006. Peace reigned among the communities until 2005 when some youths from within the two communities violated the agreement. The committee of the District Head quickly met and defused the tension and reported the outcome to the Argungu Emirate Council. This approach has not only been adopted within the entire Emirate, but also in other Emirate Councils in the state. Government is now willing to support the process financially. Because of the success recorded by the committee, the process is being replicated in other Emirates of the state. Governments seem to be realizing the respect traditional rulers earned from their subjects and is gradually willingly to support them. In a show of appreciation, the Kebbi State Government purchased limousines in 2003 for all the Emirs in the state.

Zamfara State: Conflict over Grazing Rights: Gusau Emirate Council
In the south-west of Zamfara state is Dan–Sadau Forest Reserve and connected to it it is the neighbouring Kamuku National Park in Birnin Gwari Local Government, Kaduna State. A large number of the pastoral groups using the Dan-Sadau Forest Reserve as wet season base camps also use the converted Kamuku National Park as their traditional resting point en-route to the south for dry season grazing. However, in 2002 the National Park officials denied pastoral groups access to the area and blocked three stock routes leading into the area. There was resistance from the pastoralists and conflict between the herders and the National Park guards resulted in the shooting and wounding of three pastoralists. There were reactions and mobilization for revenge. Although the matter was reported to the Federal government and a committee set up to resolve the matter in liaison with Zamfara and Kaduna state governments, little was achieved. In the light of persistent clashes, the Gusau Emirate Council took the initiative to constitute a committee which included the District Heads of Maru and Dan-Sadau and the pastoral leaders. The committee then linked up
with the Birnin-Gwari Emirate Council to discuss and resolve the matter. The two councils met the officials of the National Park and it was agreed that the pastoralists would have limited and supervised access with a payment of a token fee of N10 per cow. This system had been in place for four years and is being monitored by the Emirate Councils from the two states.

International Conflict Resolution by Katsina Emirate Council
Katsina state shares a common border with Niger Republic and there is typically a dense traffic of goods and animals across the frontier. Pastoral groups migrate into Nigeria for dry season grazing and they move back to Niger during the wet season. During these movements, conflicts occur between herders and farmers usually over damage to standing crops. Often this occurs because farmers have cultivated on existing stock routes, which, although they have no legal status, are regarded by the pastoralists as their right of way. In 1997, a traditional ruler, the District Head of Mai Ruwa, Funtua LGA, was killed along with some of the community. Since this incident government and traditional rulers have been conferring on how best to reduce the perennial conflicts. Although the Katsina state government constituted a committee to re-open stock routes that were gradually being eroded by crop farmers, nothing was achieved. In 2003, there was another violent confrontation between farmers and pastoralists in Jibiya local government at the entry point from Maradi, Niger Republic. After this, Katsina Emirate Council initiated discussions with traditional rulers in Maradi. The committee of traditional rulers, Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeders Association of Nigeria (MACBAN), Farmer Associations' representatives went to Niger for discussions. The two groups agreed to put early warning systems in place. The Nigerien pastoralists must await a signal from their leaders before moving. Crop farmers in Katsina State would be obliged to harvest their crops in good time and move the crops from the field promptly. Farmers who failed to do this stood the risk of losing their produce. On its return the committee embarked on mass enlightenment programmes and meetings with District, Village and ward heads to explain the agreement. These actions of the traditional rulers have reduced conflict greatly. The Emirate Council was able to re-activate a system that existed in the 1960s and worked very well. Bi-lateral relations between traditional rulers can be instituted across the frontiers of other nations if given the necessary backing and enabling environment.

Jigawa State: Hadeija-Nguru Wetlands Hadeija Emirate Council
The Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands in Jigawa and Yobe States is a rich pastoral and fisheries resource for which there is considerable competition. Farmer/pastoralist conflict was at its height between 1993 and 1997 when government intervened to resolve the matter. Police used helicopters for surveillance and were deployed to shoot on sight. However, the strategies adopted by the traditional rulers have reduced the level of conflict. In Guri and Kirikasamma Districts, the District Heads organised crop farmers and pastoralists to form an association, Kungiyar Hadakan Manoma da Makiyaya ta Masarautar Hadejia, (Farmers and Rearers Association in Hadeija Emirate). The District Heads are patrons of the Association. Regular meetings are held to discuss critical issues affecting the security of the area and quick resolutions are taken and implementation follows immediately. The local government security committee is at all times briefed by the District Heads who are members of the security committee. The District Heads insist that local governments respond to any need of the Association that would facilitate peaceful co-existence. The Hadejia Emirate Council is equally kept informed during the its monthly meeting. This structure is currently being further facilitated by the Jigawa Enhancement Livelihood Project (JEWEL) funded by DFID. Efforts are currently made to expand the association to cover the entire Wetland area. The Guri/Kikasamma case study demonstrates that law enforcement agents in most cases only escalate conflicts to unmanageable levels. These efforts have provided platforms for further improvement as being undertaken by the JEWEL Project. The replication of these efforts to cover the entire wetland areas may be able to sustain these efforts when coupled with the capacity building at all levels.

Kaduna State: Inter-religious strife
Because of its intermediate situation between Christians and Muslims, Kaduna State is a frequent site of ethno-religious crises since 1986 and most recently in 2000, 2002 and 2015. As soon as information got to the Emir of Zazzau that Kaduna city was burning because of clashes between Christians and Muslims, he summoned his Councillors and a decision was taken immediately to prevent the spread of the crisis to other areas within the Emirate. All District Heads were summoned and an emergency meeting held. Some District Heads could not attend because they were trapped in the violence. Every District Head was expected to call for an emergency meeting with all Village and Ward heads under them and the Emirate Council's decision conveyed accordingly. In turn, they were asked to meet with community elders, Imams, Pastors and other religious leaders such as the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and the Jama'atu Nasrul Islam (JNI). This strategy worked well in some areas within the Emirate. In Zaria and the surrounding Districts no violence was recorded. While these efforts were going on, His Royal Highness, the Emir of Zazzau was broadcasting on Radio and Television calling for calm and restraint. To get feedback, each Councillor was
assigned to oversee some Districts and report back on daily basis. This approach was so effective that some chiefdoms, such as Kagarko, adopted similar methods. The Emir of Zaria has served on many peace committees such as the Plateau Peace Mediation Committee. Although the authorities seem to be content with the role traditional rulers playing in mediating peace they make little effort to strengthen the institution to face such challenges.11

Endnotes
Ajayi Adeyinka: Methods of Conflict Resolution in African Traditional Society; African Research review, Vol. 8 (2), Serial No. 33, April, 2014:138-157.p139
Onigu, Otitie & Albert, I.O. (Eds.).Community Conflicts in Nigeria, Management, Resolution and transformation. Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited.
Olaoba, O. B. (n.d.). The Town Crier and Yoruba Palace Administrator through the Ages." Ibadan: John Archers Ltd.
Olorunsola,V. A. (ed.) (1972). The Politics of Cultural Sub-nationalism in Africa. Anchor Books.p157
Mr Ademowo: Peace making in Traditional African Society, lecture note on peace and Conflict studies, p3
Olaoba, O. B. (n.d.). The Town Crier and Yoruba Palace Administrator through the Ages." Ibadan: John Archers Ltd. p149
Ajayi Adeyinka: Methods of Conflict Resolution in African Traditional Society;p
Akeem Ayofe Akinwale: Integrating the traditional and the modern conflict management strategies in Nigeria.p151
Ibid, 139
Ibid, 139
Roger Blench et at: The Role of Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and Mediation in Nigeria,Final DFID report,2006. p93

References
Ajayi Adeyinka: Methods of Conflict Resolution in African Traditional Society; African Research review, Vol. 8 (2), Serial No. 33, April, 2014:138-157.
Onigu, Otitie & Albert, I.O. (Eds.).Community Conflicts in Nigeria, Management, Resolution and transformation. Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited.
Olaoba, O. B. (n.d.). The Town Crier and Yoruba Palace Administrator through the Ages." Ibadan: John Archers Ltd.
Olorunsola,V. A. (ed.) (1972). The Politics of Cultural Sub-nationalism in Africa. Anchor Books.
Akeem Ayofe Akinwale: Integrating the traditional and the modern conflict management strategies in Nigeria.
Roger Blench et at: The Role of Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and Mediation in Nigeria,Final DFID report,2006.
Northern Nigeria: Background to conflict, a paper by International Crisis Group, Africa Report N°168 – 20 December 2010
Roger Blench et at: The Role of Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and Mediation in Nigeria,Final DFID report,2006.

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