“Comparative Analysis: Al Zubarah Archaeological Site”

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

VOLUME I - NOMINATION FILE NOMINATION DOCUMENT FOR INSCRIPTION ON THE UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST STATE OF QATAR January 2011

His Excellency Sheikh Hassan Bin Mohammed Bin Ali Al-Thani Vice Chairman Qatar Museums Authority

Presentation Vol I

Her Excellency Sheikha Al Mayassa Bint Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Chairperson Qatar Museums Authority

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

Qatar Museums Authority

ii

Ahmed Abdulla Al Nuaimi Mohammad Omar Hafnawi

Qatar Museums Authority

Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning, Centre for GIS

Manaf Ahmed Al Sada

Private Engineering Office (PEO)

Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Project (QIAH, University of Copenhagen)

National Museum of Qatar

Research and Editorial Team Directed by

Prof. Sultan Muhesen Director of Heritage and Archaeology Qatar Museums Authority Qatar Museums Authority

Mohammad Jassim Al-Kholaifi Faisal Al-Na`imi Adel Abdullatif Al-Moslamani Himyan al-Kuwari With the Collaboration of Qatar University

Dr. Mariam Ali S A Al-Maadeed Dr. Noora Jabor Al-Thani Dr. Youssef Al-Abdallah Dr. Sherine Abdelaziz El-Menshawy Dr. Kaltham Ali G Al-Ghanim

Service, Legal, Human Resources, IT, Engineering and Financial Departments

UNESCO Doha Office

Prof. Ingolf Thuesen (Director) Prof. Alan Walmsley (Director) Dr. Tobias Richter Moritz Kinzel Anna Razeto Leslee K. Michelsen Dr. Iman Saca Alexis Pantos Sandra Rosendahl Paul Wordsworth Dr. Philip Macumber Katie F. Campbell Hanne Nyman Jakob Walløe Hansen Jos Kielgast RC Heritage Consultants

Francois Cristofoli Simone Ricca

Ministry of Environment

Presentation

Earl Roger Mandle Executive Director Qatar Museums Authority

Acknowledgements

Vol I

Engineer Abdullah Al-Najjar Chief Executive Officer Qatar Museums Authority

Qatar Tourism Authority

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

Nomination File Prepared By

iv

Table of Contents Presentation

i

Foreword

v

Table of Contents

vii

1.

Identification of Property

1.a.

Country

9 10

1.b.

State Province or Region

10

1.c.

Name of Property

16

1.d.

Geographical Coordinates to the Nearest Second

16

1.e.

Maps and Plans Showing the Boundaries of the Nominated Property and Buffer Zone

16

1.f.

Area of the Nominated Property (ha.) and Proposed Buffer Zone (ha.)

16

2.

Description

2.a.

Description of Property and Significant Features

23 24

2.b.

History and Development

64

3.

Justification for Inscription 83 Criteria under which inscription is proposed (and justification for inscription under these criteria) 84

3.a.

vii

3.b.

Proposed Statement Universal Value

of

Outstanding

3.c.

Comparative Analysis

3.d.

Integrity and Authenticity of the site.

4.

State of Conservation and Factors Affecting the Property

4.a.

Present State of Conservation

88 92 117

123 124

140

5.

Protection and Management of the Property

5.a.

Ownership

149 150

7.b.

Texts Relating to Protective Designation, Copies of Property Management Plans or Documented Management Systems and Extracts of Other Plans Relevant to the Property

7.c.

Form and Date of Most Recent Record or Inventory of Property

206

7.d.

Address Where Inventory, Records and Archives are Held

207

7.e.

Bibliography

208

8.

Contact Information of Responsible Authorities

8.a.

Preparer

213 214

8.b.

Official Local Institution/Agency

214

205

5.b.

Protective Designation

153

5.c.

Means of Implementing Protective Measures

157

5.d.

Existing Plans Related to the Municipality and Region in which the Property is Located (Regional or Local Plans, Conservation, Tourism Development Plans)

161

Property Management Plan

169

5.f.

Sources and Levels of Finance

173

5.g.

Sources of Expertise and Training in Conservation and Management Techniques

177

8.c.

Other Local Institution

216

8.d.

Official Web Address

216

9.

Signature on Behalf of the State

217

5.e.

5.h.

Visitor Facilities and Statistics

179

5.i.

Policies and Programmes Related to the Presentation and Promotion of the Property

183

5.j.

Staffing Levels (Professional, Technical, Maintenance)

189

List of Photos

220

6.

Monitoring

List of Figures

224

6.a.

Key indicators for measuring state of conservation

191 192

Administrative arrangements for monitoring Property

196

Glossary of Terms

227

6.b. 6.c.

Results of previous reporting exercises

200

7.

Documentation

201

7.a.

Photographs, slides, image inventory and authorization table and other audiovisual materials

203

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

Factors Affecting Property

4.b.

viii

Introduction

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site is an outstanding example of a planned mercantile settlement, centred on pearl fishing, along the Gulf littoral. Fishing for pearls was a significant economic and cultural system that defined the greater Gulf region for millennia. Despite its lengthy and illustrious history, and its absolute preeminence in the economic affairs of greater Arabia and Persia, it came to an abrupt end in the first few decades of the 20th century. Its demise was hastened by numerous factors, including the First World War, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the worldwide Great Depression and the subsequent disruption of the global supply chain and, most devastatingly, the development of the cultured pearl trade in Japan. Al Zubarah represents a unique and fleeting moment in the history of this important global trade – and one that has been lost elsewhere. Ironically, it was the economic boom of the oil industry, which heralded the end of so many of Al Zubarah’s contemporary settlements, that saved the area from total economic devastation following the collapse of the pearling industry. In their haste to modernise – and often to Westernise – the countries of the greater Gulf paid scant attention to the historic roots of the regional settlements. The physical hardships and fiscal uncertainty of the trade in pearls

Yet the role that Al Zubarah played in the development of the present-day nation of Qatar, as well as its contributions to Gulf and global trade, has been recognised and its importance acknowledged. As the only known 18th century example of this particular way of life, this settlement of merchants and pearl divers provides a discrete window into a vital trading system, as well as critical information on urban planning, land and water use. Al Zubarah Archaeological Site can be compared with historically important trading and pearling towns and settlements in Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). These settlements exhibit notable, but limited, information on the Gulf pearl trade and its role in global mercantile culture. The physical remains of such sites are in poor condition, if they survive at all, and are in all cases divorced from their supporting hinterland. Unchecked urbanisation and minimal protection have regretfully led to the destruction, loss or neglect of many of these sites. World Heritage comparanda for Al Zubarah include important trading centres and mercantile settlements such as Qal`at alBahrain, the Land of Frankincense, the Ruins of

3. Justification for Inscription

3.C.1.

even led to some rejection of the era as a difficult and undesirable phase in history.

Vol I

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

3.C.

92

Loropéni and the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine, which demonstrate significant phases of mercantile activity, organised harvesting of natural resources, urban planning, symbiotic landscape, water and land use, and networks of global trade in luxury goods.

3.C.2.

Other Pearling Settlements in Qatar

The coastline of Qatar, with its proximity to outstanding pearl beds, has long played a significant role in the history of pearl diving and trading in the Gulf. Traditionally, tribal groups remained near the coastal areas for the summer, and moved inland in the winter months. As these deserted sites were submitted to demolition or urbanisation in the early to mid 20th century, it is even more important that we recognise the uniqueness and fragility of the site of Al Zubarah. There are reports that name Huweila as a centre for pearling as early as the 15th century. Historical accounts claim that it was one of three main pearling centres in Qatar by 1766 AD. This has been supported by British and French archaeological investigations that were carried out in the region, in the 1950s, 1970s and 1980s, which have found materials dating back to the middle of the 18th century. The site and its close neighbour, Fuwairit, were also significant in the pearling trade after Fig 43: Expansion of Doha, 1952 to 1959 Jaidah, I. M and Bourennane, M. (2009). P27

93

Fig 44:

the abandonment of Al Zubarah in the early 19 century, but neither was as large or as dominant as the Nominated Property. Both sites saw intertribal revolts – and serious destruction – in 1811 and 1835 AD, after which many of the inhabitants were resettled in Bahrain and both towns were demolished.

Pearling sites of Qatar

th

Ruwais

Huwaylah

Doha

3. Justification for Inscription

Al Zubarah

Fuwairit

Vol I

Khor Hassan

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

One of the three small villages that were later engulfed by the urbanisation of Doha, Al Bida was noted as being a centre for pearl diving in the 1820s. Its relatively small population of around 1,000 adult males, however, indicates that it was substantially smaller than contemporary settlements of Al Zubarah, Kuwait or Manama. It therefore was not operating on the same scale as Al Zubarah in the early modern period and did not command the mercantile trade in the early modern Gulf. Additionally, the rapid expansion of the city following its establishment as the capital of the State of Qatar, as well as it stratospheric expanse following the wake of the oil discoveries of the 1930s-1950s, led to the modernisation of the site. Any remaining early modern urban fabric has been disturbed, although isolated examples of earlier architecture remain, such as the 19th century Doha Fort.

Ruwaidah

94

Iraq

1. Kuwait City

10. Muscat

2. Awal (Manama)

11. Qal`at al-Bahrain

3. Muharraq

12. Bandar Abass

4. Qatif

13. Dubai

5. Nakhilu

14. Abu Dhabi

6. Bushire

Kuwait

1

7. Jazirat al Hamra 8. Ras al Khaimeh

Iran

6

9. Bandar Lingeh

5

A

ra

Saudi Arabia 4

Bahrain 3 11

bi

2

an

12

G ul

9

f

7

Qatar

8

13

14

0

50

100

200

300 km United Arab Emirates

Fig 45: Regional map showing sites mentioned in the text QMA/QIAH 2011

95

Oman

10

There were therefore a number of significant mercantile and pearling settlements throughout the area that represent the scope of the global pearl trade in the early modern period. Yet while each exemplified important information about global trade patterns and mercantile settlements in the Gulf in the 18th-19th centuries, they have all been lost to modernisation or destruction. Although Al Zubarah’s prominence was brief, restricted mostly to the 18th and early 19th centuries, it stands alone as the only well-preserved settlement of its day, in sharp contrast to its more powerful or long-lived neighbours, whose pearling roots are now obscured beneath modern cities.

The island of Nakhilu flourished in the 17th century, with a substantial rise in production from the earliest decade of the era, when it supported a mere fifty pearling vessels, to the last quarter of the century when it boasted more than four hundred. Its economic boom holds significant importance for the study of pearl-related mercantile activity in the early modern Gulf. Its port was a central hub along the Persian coast, where it served as an essential stop on the voyage between the Upper and Lower Gulf. Yet this explosion was quickly followed by a population decline, when the locality was the centre of a disagreement between the crumbling Safavid State and groups of united Arab tribes, all of which were pressing for control of the lucrative pearling trade. Development of part of the island as well as modernisation of the town in the early 20th century has left little trace of the once-lauded settlement. The port of Bandar Lingeh exemplifies some qualities of early modern trading networks in the Gulf. With its historically documented and varied population of Arabs, Persians, Indians and Africans, the town reflected the global nature of pearling among its inhabitants. Under Portuguese control until 1711, the town was resettled by Qasimi Arabs in 1760 and served as an important trading post for the

3. Justification for Inscription

From the middle of the 17th century, the Gulf region was unparalleled as the global source for pearls. Yet the complicated geopolitics of the era, which saw the crumbling of the influence of the Persian Safavid Empire – and its traditional protection of the pearl trade in the early modern era – as well as the arrival of the Utub tribe from Arabia, led to a complete reshaping of the control of the pearling trade. Both historical and newly created pearling settlements were redefined, and became the roots of the urban fabric of the modern-day Gulf nations.

The Persian Shore

Vol I

The Regional Context: Pearling Settlements in the Arabian Gulf

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

3.C.3.

96

pearl trade, especially as an entrepôt for imports and exports to India. Until the late 19th century the town served as a flourishing port, but following the reassertion of Persian governmental control – and, thus, taxation – the main trading families emigrated to Dubai and Bahrain. Today, the port is a small town of less than 10,000 people. Unlike Al Zubarah it has been continually inhabited and, therefore, archaeological investigations have not been undertaken. In addition, the relatively high mountains that rise just behind the settlement mean that the town is isolated from any supporting hinterland, nor are there any known surviving walls or fortresses.

Fig 46: Map of Persia by J. Rapkin 1851 D. Rumsey

97

Bandar Abbas (alternatively Gombroon) was a trading port in the early modern Gulf and holds some important cultural value for the understanding of mercantile settlements in the region. With its strategic importance at the mouth of the Gulf, it preserved important traces of global trade, particularly with India. It shares with Al Zubarah a brief period of fluorescence as a mercantile centre. From its status as a Portuguese and then Persian trading centre of the 17th century – rechristened after the shah himself – it was nearly deserted a century later, according to British travellers who described the town in 1750. Just a few years later, the British and Dutch East India Companies left the island and moved to Bushire, relegating the port to relative obscurity. The continual population and use

of the site, as well as the 20th century building of several substantial roads and a fish cannery, has destroyed much of the historic urban fabric of the site.

3. Justification for Inscription

Bandar Abbas Struys, J. 1684

Vol I

Unfortunately, a major earthquake in 1877 did considerable damage to the town. The organised modernisation of the city in the 1960s led to significant razing of its historic heart. Some bombing activity during the Iran-Iraq war dealt even further blows to the survival of the 18th century mercantile settlement, and the modern city has retained little trace of its past.

Fig 47:

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

Functioning as the de facto seaport for landlocked Shiraz, the harbour of Bushire was a centre of maritime trade for millennia, with well-known settlements in the Bronze Age and medieval Islamic periods as well as the modern era. In the middle of the 18th century it was the naval base for the fleet of Nadir Shah as well as the offices of both the Dutch and British East India Companies. Its winding lanes showcased a wide variety of early modern colonial architecture indicating the architectural influences and cultural exchange in the Gulf. As such, it represented an important moment in the re-establishment of a trading centre in the early modern period, with a specific emphasis on the pearling industry.

98

Fig 48: (top right) Qatif Date Gardens 1940-1941 Cornwall, P.B. 1941 Fig 49: (top left) Qatif markets in 1950s Fig 50: (bottom) Kuwait Waterfront Development AKAA Gustav Fellalli

99

The oasis settlement of Qatif (in modern-day Saudi Arabia) also played a role in the history of pearling in the Arabian Gulf, and is an example of trade networks and fortified mercantile towns. Caught between the Ottomans and Portuguese in a long-standing series of skirmishes in the 16th century, Qatif emerged as a major pearling centre, and nexus of overland caravan

The centrality of Bahrain in the harvesting of Gulf pearls is well known, and its significance as the preeminent deep-water trading port on the Gulf cemented its importance in the pearling trade during the 19th century. With its strong historic and religious ties to Persia and its protection under the British mandate, it developed into a significant mercantile centre in the early modern Gulf. Its largest settlements were both outstanding examples of the development of the Gulf as a global trading centre in the 18th-19th centuries and demonstrated several key aspects of the pearling trade.

3. Justification for Inscription

However, with the exception of some preserved buildings, such as the early 20th century Seif Palace and the mid-19th century Badr House (which today serves as the National Museum), historic Kuwait City has been completely lost. Its defensive walls have been entirely pulled down, and it has retained few traces of its original settlement street patterns, or of the main industries of the town.

Qatif supplied important information on the history of the pearling trade and the establishment of trading centres along the Gulf littoral in the early modern period, but it does not provide a comprehensive view of a complete historic fabric. In the 1970s it was modernised and the earlier settlement was erased, and Qatif preserves no relationship between the town and its supporting hinterland.

Vol I

he historic settlement of Kuwait City was a vital centre of pearling and trading in the Gulf. Founded at the beginning of the 18th century by the al-Sabah line of the Utub tribe, it quickly rose to great prominence with over 800 pearling vessels operating out of its harbour by the mid-18th century. Its prowess in the pearling trade was ongoing, and in the first decade of the 20th century Kuwait City still had a fleet that employed more than 10,000 labourers. With a central fortification, a series of impressive fortified residences and a street plan consisting of a sequence of concentric semicircular roads radiating out from the central harbour, the urban fabric was an important testament to the creation of purpose-built mercantile settlements in the 18th century Gulf.

routes from the Gulf to the Red Sea. With its fortifications, gates, towers, bazaar, houses and al-Qubba mosque, Qatif functioned as an important mercantile settlement in the Gulf region. In addition, it was a major producer of fruits and other foodstuffs including dates, citrus, pomegranates and figs.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

The Upper Gulf

100

Historic Awal, the modern city of Manama, was by numerous historical accounts a significant pearling centre in the Gulf during the early modern era. It was an important representation of the development of mercantile towns of the Gulf into the urban centres of the modern period. Bastaki architectural forms heavily influenced by Persia illustrated trans-Gulf cultural exchange, while more traditionally Arabianstyle structures, such as numerous courtyard houses, acted as a cultural link to the other shore of the Gulf. Nonetheless, the contemporary skyline of Manama – replete with an impressive array of skyscrapers – bears no resemblance to the pearling centre which was originally founded there. Historic Manama has been eradicated, with the exception of isolated buildings that are divorced from their historical context as well as any symbiotic relationships between landscape, seascape and urban fabric.

Photo 68: Modern Manama QMA/QIAH 2009

101

Muharraq is the largest settlement on the eponymous island, and illustrated some crucial aspects of mercantile development and the early modern pearl trade. Settled at the turn of the late 18th/early 19th century by Utub settlers from the town of Jaww on the eastern side of the island, which lacked a harbour, it grew into a significant pearling centre. In the mid-19th century it was exporting 1,600,000 German crowns’ worth of pearls – all but 400,000 of them to India. The wealth brought to the town via the pearl trade is exemplified in

The strategic location of the port of Muscat was a powerful resource for the Omani coast, and the Arab merchants and sailors based there greatly expanded Gulf trade into the Indian Ocean due to their command of the vital Strait of Hormuz. By the end of the 18th century, the Sultan of Muscat had expanded his territory’s traditional boundaries and created a vital shipping link in the global supply chain. The settlement, as a result, was an important centre of early modern Gulf trade and contained vital information on mercantile settlements. As is the case with many successful, long-occupied settlements, however, Muscat was in many ways a victim of its own prosperity. Constant pressure for settlement, and heavy demands for resources, has

Fig 51: (bottom left) Muscat city AKAA: Courtesy of the Royal Court Fig 52: (top) Ras al Khaimah Jeffrey Macmillan Fig 53: (bottom right) Jazirat al Hamrah Phillip Game

3. Justification for Inscription

The Lower Gulf

The abandoned pearling town of Jazirat al Hamra is located on the southern coast of Ras al Khaimah emirate, and provides a compelling example of the fragility of these settlements. The al-Zaab tribe left the area soon after the incorporation of Ras al Khaimah into the UAE, thus preserving the footprint of an early 20th century mercantile settlement. Its urban fabric – including homes, marketplaces, streets and thirteen mosques – remains, after its

Vol I

Yet the Abu Mahir Fort – which is thought to have defended a water system – does not reflect any important reciprocal relationships between urban landscape and hinterland. Additionally, the modernisation of Manama from the 1930s-1970s – including the widening of roads, demolishing areas of the city and building a causeway – completely obscured the historic pattern of the settlement. Although there are important individual structures remaining, they function in isolation as their surrounding urban fabric has been destroyed.

resulted in the loss of much of historic Muscat. Isolated buildings, including the visually spectacular 16th century al-Jalali fort, survive and the old town was rehabilitated in 1988. Nonetheless, the historic port settlement has been lost beneath modern construction.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

outstanding isolated buildings, including several important 19th century houses and the Abu Mahir Fort.

102

Fig 54: Contemporary Abu Dhabi asrema.com Fig 55: Historic Abu Dhabi c.a. 1930s Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture and Heritage

103

In the early modern era, all three towns were influential economic centres in the trade and expansion of the Gulf but unlike Dubai and Abu Dhabi, the political and economic importance of Al Zubarah shifted away, to Doha, leaving the earlier town intact. Dubai and Abu Dhabi have lost their historic cores to an astonishing degree; both towns had less than 1,000 occupants at the turn of the 19th century but today collectively support more than 3,000,000 inhabitants. Unsurprisingly, such rapid expansion has transformed the settlements completely.

3. Justification for Inscription

The capital cities of the emirates of Dubai and Abu Dhabi were both founded in the mid to late 18th centuries as part of the expansion of Arab trading and pearling settlements in the early modern Gulf. Their incorporation as part of the Trucial States in the early 19th century ensured their protection from the British Crown, but also restricted their trade with other foreign nations. Yet increasing trade with India, as well as their growing domination of the Gulf trade, led to an explosion of the settlements in the mid to late 19th century, when they usurped the earlier Persian shore settlements as the most important entrepôts of the Gulf. They had crucial information, therefore, on ”boomtown” expansion of the commercial outposts of the early modern Gulf and its repercussions on the development of the trans-regional political economy.

For the modern observer, however, Dubai and Abu Dhabi conjure visions of the future, not of the past. With their distinctive skylines, which include some of the tallest skyscrapers in the world, they bear few similarities with the traditional settlements. Important individual buildings do remain – the early 19th century Murayjib Fort in Abu Dhabi and the late 18th century al-Fahidi Fort in Dubai preserve some of the cultural heritage of the pre-modern Gulf – but they are divorced from their original context and are now encircled by the contemporary cities.

Vol I

Similar to Al Zubarah in its completeness and abandonment, it is nevertheless the victim of urbanisation and land use pressure. Its use as temporary housing for a new generation of inhabitants, unchecked and unmitigated development, as well as confusion about site management due to a plethora of original property owners, has stymied its preservation and led to significant damage. The site serves as a warning that the rare, complete pearling towns of the Gulf – of which Al Zubarah is the only known 18th century example – are fragile and under immense pressure from modernisation and neglect.

Abu Dhabi, in particular, was a true pearling centre and did not play an extensive role in mercantile activities.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

abandonment in the early 1970s, and these features have been studied intensively by research teams.

104

3 1

5

7

2 6 4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Qal'at al-Bahrain Land of Frankincense, Oman Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine, Japan Tuticorin, India Nueva Cadíz, Isla de Cubagua, Venezuela Jolo, Sulu Islands, Philippines Ruins of Loropéni, Burkina Faso

Fig 56: Examples of pearling and merchant sites around the world QMA/QIAH 2011 after RC Heritage 2007

105

The preeminent locus for global pearling activities is without doubt the Arabian Gulf; revenues from the rich sites of its shores provided more than 60-70% of the world’s pearls for millennia, until the development of the cultured pearl in the mid-20th century. Nonetheless, there are important historical pearling centres outside the region, the most significant being the Gulf of Mannar between present-day India and Sri Lanka, the Sulu Sea off the coast of Jolo Island in the present-day Philippines, and the Caribbean fisheries, particularly those off Margarita Island in modern Venezuela.

Tuticorin, India

The colonisation of labour extended into the urban fabric of the successive townscapes; Tuticorin was redeveloped as a Portuguese settlement in the 16th century, overtaken by the Dutch in the 18th century and ceded to the British in the 19th century. While it was established primarily as a centre for pearl diving and trading, the rich histories of the city expanded into the salt and textile trades, using the existing structure of the pearl industry as a model. The government strictly regulated the trade, down to the assignation of officially appointed shark charmers, one per boat, who performed essential rituals before each dive.

In the early 17th century, power struggles between various European empires jockeying for dominance over the rich subcontinent developed in the pearl fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar. The traditional occupation of the Tamil-speaking Parava group, pearl diving was a

There are still shipbuilders crafting the traditional Tuticorin thoni, the wooden plankbuilt ships which ferried the pearl divers of the region to and from the pearling beds. In

Each site preserved important information on the economic and social ramifications of the pearl trade; in many cases this was conflated with a tragic history of slavery and forced labour. Yet modern pressures, ranging from political instability to the stresses of modernisation, have taken their toll on many of the sites, and much of the information that they carried on early modern global trading activities has been tragically lost.

3. Justification for Inscription

Global Pearl Fishing and Trading

violently contested economic activity with constant pressures and demands from rival groups. In the early decades of the 16th century, the Paravas converted to Catholicism en masse in order to assure protection by the King of Portugal, and in so doing stave off incursions from neighbouring Islamic and Hindu tribes. Yet the Paravas were ill-served by this protection; the Portuguese Jesuits who controlled the pearling town of Tuticorin, and oversaw the industry, earned revenues from the lucrative trade and exploited their labour.

Vol I

Pearl Fishing and Trading: a Worldwide Survey

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

3.C.4.

106

addition, some teak-timbered houses of wealthy 19th century pearl merchants survive in the city centre. Yet the major rebuilding of the principal port in the 1970s, now among India’s largest, as well as the construction of a shipping canal and the dredging of part of the Gulf of Mannar, have resulted in a complete modification of the 16th-18th century town layout as well as a disconnect between the town and its surrounding land and seascape.

Jolo, Sulu Islands, Philippines Pearls and pearl diving played key roles in the turbulent and sometimes tragic history of Jolo, in the modern day Philippines. Fourteenth century Chinese chroniclers celebrated the bounty of the “marine gardens” of Sulu, attesting to its role in long-distance trade from an early era. This trade was overseen under the patronage of the Sultan of Sulu, who demanded that the very best pearls be kept for his own use and that of his court. This had severe repercussions on the development of trade in the Sulu Sea, as inconsistency of the supply hindered expansion.

Fig 57: Entrance to Jolo Town in the 1830s M. Dumont D’Urville Fig 58: 17th Century view of Tuticorin by Johannes Nieuhf Washington State University Library

107

The discovery in the late 18th and early 19th centuries of the value of mother-of-pearl changed the face of the industry in the Sulu Sea. From this point onward, Jolo and the surrounding archipelago were major exporters of mother-of-pearl. In less than a hundred years, exports increased more than sixfold. In order to keep up with the growing demand, the workforce – numbering up to 70,000 men by the

Nueva Cadíz, Isla de Cubagua, Venezuela On Christopher Columbus’s third voyage to the Americas, in 1498, he admired the magnificent pearl jewellery worn by the local people. After inquiring into the source of the gems, he travelled past one of the locales described to him, a particularly large island, which he christened Margarita – the Greek word for

The establishment of the town of Nueva Cadíz in the early 16th century, and its growing importance, led to increasing demands on its resources. It was incorporated as the first city in the New World, as was the headquarters for pearl trading in the greater Caribbean. The local indigenous population had been devastated by the arrival of the Spaniards as well as their forced participation in pearl diving, and to fill the vacuum Nueva Cadíz became one of the chief entrepôts for the importation of African slaves in the Americas. So enormous was the pressure for the pearls – and so greatly were they harvested – that Nueva Cadíz represents the first complete depletion of a natural resource by Europeans in the New World.

3. Justification for Inscription

Modern photographs of the town – estimated to have a population of over 60,000 inhabitants – show serious breaches in the defensive walls, where visible, and in other stretches the walls have been completely covered by modern structures. More complete information is difficult to obtain, as ongoing hostilities, most recently in 2005 and 2009, have resulted in the deaths of hundreds of people and the displacement of more than 10,000 civilians.

In the early 16th century there was a rush to claim the rich waters of the islands, and the first colonists put in place a system of fortifications, replete with forts, to guard the area. It was a reasonable precaution, as the oyster beds around the islands became the most profitable pearling centres in the New World, sending tens of millions of pearls back to Spain and, via the European trader, into the global market.

Vol I

Frequent raids accompanied the development of Jolo from a relatively small village to a major centre of pearl diving and trading. Burned down in the 16th century and recaptured and rebuilt by the Spanish in the 19th century, the town preserved a fortified layout with a grid system, defensive walls, markets and homes. Yet the political tensions and military operations of the 20th century resulted in the bombing of Jolo town in 1973, and no comprehensive evaluative program has been put in place to determine the extent of the damage to the original urban fabric.

pearl. It was a fortuitous selection, as the island and its neighbours, Isla de Cubagua and Coche, became one of the preeminent pearling centres in the Americas.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

early 19th century – was composed chiefly of slave labour from neighbouring islands.

108

Fig 59: (top ) Nueva Cadíz ruins Meredith Kohut Fig 60: (right) Isla de Margarita engraving from Antonio de Tordesillas y Herrera’s “Historia general de los hechos de los castellanos” - 1728 Brown University Photo 69: (bottom) Reconstructed passageway in Qal`at al-Bahrain QMA/QIAH 2011

109

3.C.5.

Merchant Settlements in the UNESCO World Heritage Lists

The conservation of the site has resulted in the clearing of the moats, the stabilising and/ or reconstruction of the bastions and towers, with respect to the integrity of the original material(s), and the construction of a site museum and visitor centre for educational purposes.

Qal`at al-Bahrain Qal`at al Bahrain was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 2005 (under criteria ii, iii, and iv) and is an outstanding example of a port city, primarily concerned

Most probably the capital city of the ancient Near Eastern Dilmun civilization, it exhibits,

3. Justification for Inscription

It is an impressive tell, with the stratified remains of numerous civilizations dating back to the third millennium BC. It therefore provides critical knowledge on the lives of its inhabitants for the longue durée of the site and is a priceless window into the past for its many visitors. It is not merely a single early modern fort, as the name implies, but is a succession of development that sheds light on the long and important history of this port city of the Gulf.

Vol I

Such an unfortunate neglect of an important, purposebuilt centre for pearl diving, pearl trading, early modern mercantile activities and the tragic history of the slave trade in the Americas reinforces the importance of preserving and protecting Al Zubarah Archaeological Site as one of the only complete, early modern mercantile centres in the world.

with trade in the Arabian Gulf. It presents crucial information on the history of trade in the Gulf, the links with global trade, and the development of the greater area in the early modern period. As such, it represents a critical point in the interaction between the cultural and natural aspects of the denizens of the Gulf and is of Universal Value for its authenticity and integrity.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

Its rapid growth and central importance to the pearl trade was very short-lived. In 1541 an earthquake struck the island, centred under the footprint of the city, which was followed by a devastating tsunami. The island remains nearly abandoned to this day, used chiefly as a stopover by fisherman, and the ruins of the once-great city of Nueva Cadíz – declared a Venezuelan National Monument in 1979 – have not been restored. Excavations carried out on the site in the 1960s and 1970s have been published and a Nueva Cadíz Museum has been established in La Asunción, the capital of the neighbouring Isla de Margarita. The city itself is now a vast ruin, used as a toilet by itinerant fisherman and looted by visitors from the mainland. Plans to build a museum and visitor centre have been delayed.

110

under criterion ii, “an important interchange of human values, over a span of time” as well as rich material remains of the cultures preserved within it. It is comprised of a series of ramparts, numerous public buildings and defensive structures that portray cultural information on nearly five thousand years of history. As such, it acts in many ways as the mirror image of the site of Al Zubarah, which is a frozen moment in a specific place and time. Rather than preserving a series of successive histories, as does Qal`at al Bahrain, the Nominated Property is a rich testament to a brief moment in the history of the civilizations of the Gulf, one which directly impacted the development of the modern states of the region and underpinned the economic sustenance of an entire way of life. The project was developed by the Ministry of Information, the Directorate of Culture and National Heritage, and the Directorate of Archaeological Heritage of the Kingdom of Bahrain, with the assistance of the French Archaeological Mission in Bahrain.

Land of Frankincense

Photo 70: (top left) Ruins at Qal`at al-Bahrain QIAH 2011 Fig 61: (top right) Bahrain fort restoration AKAA: Khatoon al-Ansari Fig 62: Man collecting frankincense Eric Lafforgue

111

The Land of Frankincense of Oman was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 2000, under criteria iii and iv, and is an exemplary standard of the traces of ancient trading patterns, and the roots of contemporary economic development. A discrete system of intertwined patterns of trade, land and

The disintegration of the sites began after a sequence of raids by Arab and Persian invaders in the 12th-13th centuries, while Portuguese intervention in the 15th century dealt the death knell to the network with its redirection of the trade routes. The structural collapse of the fortified settlements, the vulnerable traces of

The National Committee for the Archaeological Survey and the Ministry of Information of the Sultanate of Oman developed the project, with the assistance of Aachen University and the University of Pisa.

3. Justification for Inscription

The fortified medieval structures of al-Balid, Shisr and Khor Rori exemplify the productive manipulation and physical defences of the trading landscape. Material culture remains include vestiges of valuable trade goods such as Indian textiles and Mediterranean oils, and the system of defensive walls and towers of the settlements attest to the wealth and importance of the goods, and of the trading system, for the greater region.

Like Al Zubarah, the Land of Frankincense illustrates the complex interconnections between the desert landscape, the sea, fortified settlements and trade routes. Unlike the lengthy period of time illustrated by the extensive Land of Frankincense, Al Zubarah illuminates a brief and fragile moment in the history of luxury trade in the Gulf littoral.

Ruins of Loropéni The Ruins of Loropéni in Burkhina Faso, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2009 under criteria iii, represent a remarkable system of concentrated control and distribution of commodities – particularly gold – on the African continent. As such, it provides crucial information on the organisation and dominance of mercantile systems and their impact on coastal trade, fortified settlements and management of mineral resources.

Vol I

The Neolithic site of Wadi Dawkah, in southern Arabia, is an outstanding example of the deep roots of this trading system in southern Arabia, and demonstrates the continual importance of the Arabian littoral in trade and material culture. The trees of Dhofar and their aromatic harvests followed the more ancient trading routes in shell and obsidian from east Africa and Mesopotamia, and expanded to include ancient Egypt and points further east and west via indirect trade.

the trading networks on the overland routes and the organic fragility of the frankincense trees themselves have been incorporated into an extensive plan of protection, recording and explanation for future generations.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

water use, material culture and settlements, the Land of Frankincense exemplifies the production, use and distribution of luxury goods on a local, regional and global level.

112

Although dating to the 11th century AD, its fluorescence in the 14th-17th centuries – and subsequent abandonment in the 19th century – provides an outstanding example of a fortified settlement, centred on the extraction and trading of natural materials. Its existence over the longue durée demonstrates shifting patterns of habitation, land and resource management, commercial exchange and the interrelation of coastal and inland trade networks. As the residence of the Lohron or Koulango peoples, engaged in the extraction and trade of a valuable natural resource during the height of colonialism, their ability to negotiate their identity and independence in the face of international power struggles provides an important window into the development of early modern nation states, in a similar manner to that of Al Zubarah. The Ruins of Loropéni are the most well-preserved out of a group of several dozen contemporary fortified settlements, many of which were involved significantly in the trans-Saharan trade in gold. As at Al Zubarah, some archaeological work has been carried out, and further investigations will undoubtedly shed more light on this vital but littleknown link in the global supply chain.

Photo 71: Ruins of Loropeni Benoît Demers

113

The standing stone walls of the settlement and its central enclosure are thought to have been constructed in explicit response to the security and

The Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine, inscribed on the World Heritage list in 2007 under criteria ii, iii and iv, is an extraordinary illustration of the impact of early modern economic systems on the development of a modern nation. Its fortified settlements, shipping ports, and use of land and sea-scapes, trading routes, and organised harvesting of luxury products is an outstanding example of contributions to early modern trade. With the collapse of traditional, small-scale industrial activities in the 19th century, following the technological advances in modern mining methods, the site was abandoned and remains a remarkably well-preserved example of a labour-intensive industrial settlement of the early modern era. The organic relationships between and among the silver mines, mountains, forests, rivers and seashore very effectively illustrate the symbiotic relationship of

As at Al Zubarah, the domination and control of a relatively small-scale, high-yield commercial and trading activity resulted in a plethora of exchanges, both economic and cultural, with regional neighbours as well as trading partners further afield. In both cases there is a significant impact on broader economic patterns and a crucial significance of importance beyond the local level. In addition, the symbiotic relationship with the landscape is a crucial factor in the success of both sites. The Agency for Cultural Affairs, Monuments and Sites Division, as well as the Shimane Prefecture and the city of Ohda, prepared the project.

3. Justification for Inscription

Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine

The control of the network from source to production to transportation is an important aspect of its traditional technologies, controlled by a relatively small group of highly skilled labourers. Its economic impact drove the economy of the immediate hinterland as well as greater afield, and contributed directly to growing patterns of trade in early 19th century Japan.

Vol I

The Director General of Cultural Heritage prepared the project, the first to be inscribed in the country of Burkhina Faso, with the assistance of the Regional Director of Culture, Tourism and Communication; the Service of Sites, Monuments and Traditional Architecture and the Site Conservator.

settlement, production and trade in a cultural system. The significant cultural and commercial exchanges engineered by the trading network led to increased economic and cultural relationships between Japan and East Asia as well as Europe.

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

housing needs of the mining population, and to direct control of their precious commodity. They bear witness not only to the organisation of commercial activity, but to the lives of the individuals – and their surrounding social fabric – who directed its activities.

114

Photo 72: Staircase in the landscape of the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine japan-web-magazine.com

115

With its comprehensive archaeological investigations – now impossible to achieve at the sites of its historical peers – as well as comprehensive management plan, clear ownership and governmental support, Al Zubarah provides a distinctive and compelling window into the lost world of pearl diving and trading which, in many ways, sowed the seeds for the radically transformed 21st century Gulf. In common with the World Heritage sites, discussed above, Al Zubarah provides a compelling insight into the development, protection and continuation of an essential and sustaining trade network, with important and interconnected relationships between its regional land and sea-scapes. These World Heritage sites, along with Al Zubarah, demonstrate the physical manifestations of regional and global trading networks,

In addition, the fleeting nature of the trading lifestyle represented at the Nominated Property underscores the fragility and uniqueness of its existence and preservation. Unparalleled among its peers in the regional and global trade of which it played such a substantive role, Al Zubarah Archaeological Site is of outstanding universal value for its role as a cradle for the development of the modern Middle East. 3. Justification for Inscription

Due to its abandonment, Al Zubarah has not suffered the same fate that has befallen so many of its Gulf neighbours. Unencumbered by modern development, it has preserved those aspects of the early modern mercantile era that are now regrettably lost in the rest of the Gulf – including pearling, fishing, agricultural, and mercantile activities within an intact urban matrix and a supportive hinterland. Additionally, ephemeral traces crucial to the early modern pearling lifestyle – including temporary palm frond huts and the management of precious water resources – have been retained at the site.

as well as important information on the material culture and environmental symbioses of the respective regions.

Vol I

Conclusion

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

3.C.6.

116

Glossary of Terms Abbasid

madbasa, pl. madbasat

Medieval Islamic dynasty ruling the Middle East and Gulf from Baghdad between 750 and 1258AD

(Arabic) Date press

barjeel

Dump for domestic waste

(Arabic) Architectural device used to create natural ventilation in buildings; wind tower, wind catcher

dabs

(Arabic) Date syrup

midden mihrab

(Arabic) Semicircular niche in the qiblah wall of a mosque indicating the direction of Makkah

minaret

dhow

(Arabic) Traditional Arab sailing vessel with one or more lateen sails

Tall spire with onion-shaped or conical crowns, either free-standing or taller than any associated support structure, from which the Call to Prayer is proclaimed

Dilmun

pisé

Ancient Near Eastern kingdom flourishing from around 2200 until 1600BC, most likely with the island of Bahrain as its centre. Important trading centre in the Arabian Gulf and beyond

(French) Rammed earth. Wall building technique using raw materials of earth, chalk, lime and gravel

enceinte

Arabian tribe based at Ras al Khaimeh (UAE) that emerged as a major maritime power during the 18th century, when they controlled trade in the Arabian Gulf

(French) Enclosing wall, usually exterior, of a fortified place

halophyte

Qasimi

A plant that naturally grows where it is affected by salinity in the root area or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and seashores

QIAH

hammam

(Arabic) Wall of a mosque facing Makkah

(Arabic) Communal bathhouse

herpetofauna

Amphibian/reptile fauna

khor

(Arabic) Tidal embayment

Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage project at Al Zubarah

qiblah wall QMA

Qatar Museums Authority

QMA 1-6

Referring to areas of excavations undertaken by the predecessors of the QMA at Al Zubarah during the 1980s

QTA

Utub

sabkha

Wahhabi

(Arabic) Salt flat. A flat area between a desert and an ocean, characterised by a crusty surface consisting of evaporite deposits, windblown sediments, and tidal deposits

Safavid

Ruling dynasty of Iran and the northern Arabian Gulf between 1501 and 1736

scarp

Also escarpment, slope on the inner side of a ditch

shamal wind

North-westerly wind blowing over the Arabian Gulf and adjacent countries, which is often strong during the day but decreasing at night, and may cause sandstorms

Members of the Bani Utbah tribe originating from Arabia Religious movement within Sunni Islam

Waqf

(Arabic) Religious endowment in Islamic law, typically denoting a building or plot of land for Muslim religious or charitable purposes

ZUEP01-05

Referring to areas of excavation undertaken by the QIAH project since 2009

List of Images and Glossary

Qatar Tourism Authority

(Arabic) Market with stalls

tabun/tannur

Vol I

souq

tell

(Arabic) Hill, mound. A type of archaeological site in the form of an earthen mound that results from the accumulation and subsequent erosion of material deposited by long human occupation

Umayyad

Medieval Islamic dynasty ruling the Middle East and Gulf from Damascus from 661 to 750, and until 1009 in Spain

Al Zubarah Archaeological Site

(Arabic) Clay oven. Shaped like a truncated cone, with an opening at the bottom from which to stoke the fire

228

229