Insecticidal properties of Mentha species: A review

Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Industrial Crops and Products journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Review

Insecticidal properties of Mentha species: A review Peeyush Kumar, Sapna Mishra, Anushree Malik ∗ , Santosh Satya Centre for Rural Development & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 21 December 2010 Received in revised form 17 February 2011 Accepted 24 February 2011 Available online 23 March 2011 Keywords: Mentha Essential oil Insecticidal Stored grain pests Vectors Formulation

a b s t r a c t In view of the environmental, food-safety and health related issues associated with the application of chemical insecticides, growing emphasis is being laid on insect-pest control through plant resources. Mentha (mint) is one of the most common herb which has been known for its medicinal and aromotherapeutic properties since ancient times and in the last few decades, its insecticidal potential has also been investigated. The present review consolidates studies concerning insecticidal activity of Mentha against various stored grain pests and vectors. Insecticidal properties of different Mentha species are commonly inherent in its essential oils or plant extracts which is correlated with their chemical composition. Insect/pest control potential of various Mentha species has been evaluated by conducting adulticidal, larvicidal and growth/reproduction inhibition bioassays. Fumigant and repellent activity of Mentha essential oil has been studied against several stored grain pests (Tribolium castaneum, Sitophilus oryzae, Acanthoscelides obtectus, etc.) and vectors. Nevertheless, studies exploring larvicidal and growth/reproduction regulatory activity of Mentha, are relatively less. Among the vectors, mosquitocidal activity of several Mentha essential oils and their constituents is established. However, the studies directed towards formulation or product development and performance assessment in actual field conditions are lacking. Hence, although a ground has been set based on the lab scale research investigations, field studies on these aspects are warranted to ensure wide scale application. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2. 3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mentha: species and occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical composition of Mentha essential oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Menthol rich Mentha oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Carvone rich Mentha oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Pulegone/piperitone rich Mentha oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Repellency and adulticidal activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1. Storage pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2. Vectors/other insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Larvicidal activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Growth and reproduction inhibition activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanism of action of essential oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insecticidal activity of Mentha extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions and future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

802 803 804 804 804 804 805 805 806 806 809 809 810 811 813 815

1. Introduction

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591158; fax: +91 11 26591121. E-mail addresses: [email protected], anushree [email protected] (A. Malik). 0926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.02.019

Plant essential oils and their components have been known to exhibit biological activities, especially antimicrobial, since ancient time. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans knew peppermint as flavouring agent for food and as medicine while the essential oils

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

of mint were used as perfumes, food flavours, deodorants and pharmaceuticals (Barıs et al., 2006). During the middle ages, powdered mint leaves were used to whiten teeth (Hajlaoui et al., 2008). Even today, about 80% of the world’s population relies predominantly on plants and plant extracts for health care (Werka et al., 2007). Particularly, in recent years, essential oils and their components are gaining increasing interest due to being relatively safe for the environment as well as to the human health, their wide acceptance by consumers, and their exploitation for potential multi-purpose functional use (Ormancey et al., 2001). Plant insecticides have been used to fight pests for centuries (Isman, 2006). For instance, use of plant extracts and powdered plant parts as insecticides was widespread during Roman Empire. There are reports that in 400 B.C., during the reign of Persian king Xerxes, the control of head lice in children was done with a powder obtained from the dry flowers of pyrethrum plant (Addor, 1995). However, after the Second World War a few plants and plant extracts that had shown promising effects, and was of widespread use, was replaced by synthetic chemical insecticides. With the introduction of synthetic insecticides, use of botanical insecticides almost started declining. Later on, the adverse effect of chemical insecticides was realized with the problems like environmental contamination, residues in food and feed and pest resistance. Since majority of plant insecticides are biodegradable, it leads to revival of growing interest in the use of either plant extracts or essential oils. More than 1500 species of plants have been reported to have insecticidal value, and many more exist. Although compared with modern synthetics the plant substances are relatively less effective, their relatively safe nature has resulted in the opening up of a new vista in plant insecticides research. Mentha (commonly known as mint or pudina) is one of the most common herb which has been known for its medicinal and aromotherapeutic properties since ancient times. Mint is mentioned in the Icelandic Pharmacopoeias of the thirteenth century while there is also report of its cultivation in China during Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) (Dai, 1981). In late seventeenth century, peepermint (Mentha × piperita) was recognized as a distinct species, when the English botanist John Ray (1628–1705) published it in the second edition of his synopsis Stirpium Britannicorum in 1696, and in whose herbarium the oldest specimens of peppermint could be found. In 1721, M. × piperita L. was admitted into the London Pharmacopceia as Mentha piperitis sapore in recognition of its medicinal properties (Flückiger, 1879; Blumenthal, 1998). In Europe, it came into general use as medicine for nausea, vomiting and gastro-intestinal disorder during middle of the eighteenth century (Grieve, 1931). Beside their medicinal properties mint and its various species have also been known for its insecticidal value against ants, mosquitoes, wasps, hornets and cockroaches (Worwood, 1993). Moreover, oil of Mentha and its components are also reported for its antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-cancerous properties (Lee et al., 2001; Bakkali et al., 2008; Tyagi and Malik, 2010a,b), which makes them worth exploring. Since Mentha finds use in foods and aromatherapy, its prospects to be used as insect repellent increases. There are also few reports of toxicity and mutagenic activity of some Mentha species at higher concentration (Franzios et al., 1997; Gardiner, 2000), which necessitate knowledge of dose and procedure of application. Earlier, a brief review by Shrivastava (2009) focused on the chemistry, pharmacology, analysis, and uses of peppermint oil (M. piperita L. and M. arvensis L.) while Bakkali et al. (2008) described the biological effects (viz. cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity) of the several essential oil. Nevertheless, in the last few decades many studies have been reported on the insecticidal activity of several Mentha species such as M. microphylla, M. viridis and M. longifolia. However, a comprehensive literature describing occurrence, composition and insecticidal properties of various Mentha species is lacking. The

803

present work portrays a comprehensive picture of the insecticidal properties of different Mentha species against various stored grain pests and vectors. Attempts have also been made to include repellent and growth regulatory activities of Mentha essential oils and extracts, which eventually play a significant role in pest control. 2. Mentha: species and occurrence The genus Mentha, one of the important members of the Lamiaceae family, is represented by about 19 species and 13 natural hybrids. They are fast growing and invasive and generally tolerate a wide range of agro-climatic conditions with distribution across Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America (Brickell and Zuk, 1997). However, all mint species prefer and thrive in cool, moist spots of partial shade (Bradley, 1992). They are fast growing, extending their reach along surfaces through a network of runners. The most common and popular mints for cultivation are M. × piperita L. and M. spicata L. Given below is the brief description about some of the Mentha species noted for its insceticidal activity. Mentha pulegium L. (Syn. Pulegium vulgare Mill.), is native to Africa, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). The mint is smaller than other mints and creeps along the ground and spreads rapidly through its underground root system (Bradley, 1992). Stems are red-purple and highly branched while leaves are scales like (Shu, 1994; Harley, 1972). Flowers have verticillasters arrangement. Mentha spicata L. (Syn. M. aquatica var. crispa (L.) Benth., M. cordifolia Opiz ex Fresen., M. crispa L., M. viridis (L.) L.) is native of Africa, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). The plant has matted and creeping root system (stolon) from which erect stems up to 40–130 cm in height arise. Leaves are sessile or subsessile with serrated margin while flowers are spikes with verticillasters arrangement (Shu, 1994). Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Syn. M. candicans Mill., M. capensis Thunb., M. royleana Benth., M. spicata var. longifolia L., M. sylvestris L.) is native of Africa, Temperate & Tropical Asia and Europe (Harley, 1972; GRIN, 2010). The plant is a perennial herb and fast-growing. Rhizomatous plants give rise to highly branched, whitish, erect stems which grow to the height of 100 cm (Shu, 1994). Flowers arrangement is verticillasters. Mentha arvensis L. (Syn. M. austriaca Jacq., M. gentilis L.) is native to Tropical Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). The plant is perennial, rhizomatous and grows up to 80 cm in height (Harley, 1972). Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. (Syn. M. insularis Req., M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds Auct.) is native of native of Africa, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010; Abbaszadeh et al., 2009). Herbs are perennial, rhizomatous and stoloniferous which give rise to erect stems (30–80 cm) which are striated and are branched pyramidally (Harley, 1982). Leaves are usually sessile with crenate or crenate-serrate margin. Verticillasters arrangement is present in terminal, dense cylindric spikes (Harley, 1982). Mentha aquatica L. (Syn. Mentha palustris Mill.) is a native of Africa, Temperate Asia and Europe (GRIN, 2010). It is perennial, rhizomatous plant growing up to 90 cm in height (Harley, 1982). The green or purple stems are square in cross section, and variably hairy to hairless. The flowers are tiny, densely crowded, tubular, and purple to pinkish to lilac in colour (Harley, 1982). M. × piperita L. (Syn. M. citrata Ehrh., M. lavanduliodora ined., M. × piperita var. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq., M. pyramidalis Ten.) is a sterile hybrid derived from a cross between M. aquatica L. and M. spicata L. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, and propagates only vegetatively, through rhizomes (Abbaszadeh et al., 2009). The purple-red stem of the plant is erect and grows up to 30–100 in cm height (Shu, 1994). Flowers have verticillasters arrangement in cylindric terminal spikes. M. × piperita L. nothosubsp. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq., also known as Mentha citrata Ehrh., originated in Europe (Ghosh and Chatterjee, 1978). The herbs have leafy stolons, which is glabrous or subglabrous throughout. The margins of leaves are remotely serrate, upper leaves reduced and flowers have verticillasters inflo-

804

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

rescence (Shu, 1994). Mentha × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. is a hybrid between M. longifolia (L.) Huds. and M. suaveolens Ehrh. (Kokkini and Papageorgiou, 1988). One another species of Mentha, M. microphylla K. Kock, is apparently an allotetraploid derived from Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. and Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Sutour et al., 2008). 3. Chemical composition of Mentha essential oil Species of the genus Mentha have been reported to contain a range of components, including cinnamic acids (Triantaphyllou et al., 2001), aglycon, glycoside or acylated flavonoids (Fialová et al., 2008), and steroidal glycosides (Ali et al., 2002). However, the main active component of Mentha is essential oil, which is reported to govern its various properties. Different species of Mentha show high polymorphism in morphology and vary in their essential oil content and composition (Chauhan et al., 2009). Existing variations in oil content and composition may be attributed to factors related to ecotype and the environment including temperature, relative humidity, irradiance and photoperiod (Chauhan et al., 2009). Similarly, chemotype of the plants, cultivation practices and method of extraction also leads to variation in oil content and chemical composition (Pavela, 2009). Other factors affecting essential oil composition, relates to agronomic and genotype conditions, such as harvesting time, plant age and crop density (Telci et al., 2010; Marotti et al., 1994). Clark and Menary (1984) obtained higher methanol content from the essential oil of the first harvest than that of the second harvest, while increase in menthol content with plant maturity was reported by Court et al. (1993). Similarly, different photoperiodic treatment was also shown to be influencing concentrations of oil components in Mentha species (Fahlen et al., 1997). On the basis of biosynthetic pathway followed in different species of Mentha, subjected to varying geographical conditions, they could be divided into: menthol rich, carvone rich and pulegone/piperitone rich essential oils. Chemical composition of essential oil from some of the common Mentha species, reported in literature for their insecticidal activity, is briefly discussed in the following section while the structures of major chemical constituents are shown in Fig. 1. 3.1. Menthol rich Mentha oils Commercially, the most important mint species is peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.). Peppermint oil is one of the most popular and widely used essential oils, mostly because of its main components menthol and menthone (Gul, 1994). Menthol is a waxy, crystalline substance used for various medical purposes such as, to relieve skin irritation, sunburn, sore throat, fever, muscle aches and in nasal congestion while menthone is used in perfumery and as flavour agent. Normally, essential oil of M. × piperita L. has 30–55% of menthol while composition of menthone is between 14 and 32% (ESCOP, 1997). Court et al. (1993) reported over 200 different constituents in peppermint oil. Samarasekera et al. (2008) investigated effect of essential oil of Mentha piperita L. emend. Huds. against local mosquitoes and subsequently carried out its GC analysis obtaining menthol (41%) and menthone (24%) as principle constituents.Placios et al. (2009) evaluated insecticidal activity of M. × piperita L. against Musca domestica L. and reported menthol (41%) as major constituent followed by menthone (21%). Among the peppermints of different origins studied, peppermint of USA and Egypt origin (Black Mitcham) contains the highest menthol and gives optimum oil yield (Aflatuni, 2005). M. arvensis L. is cultivated in many parts of the world for the production of menthol from its essential oil. Although M.

arvensis L. has been frequently used for various insecticidal assay (Kumar et al., 2009; Pavela, 2005), none of the study discussing its chemical constituents, along with, could be retrived. The principal constituents of essential oils of M. arvensis L. is: l-menthone, menthol, isomenthone, eucalyptol, piperitone oxide, carvone, dllimonene, trans-dihydrocarvone and germacrene-D (Sharma et al., 2009; Verma et al., 2010). Verma et al. (2010) studied the effect of cultivars age on terpenoids compo sition of M. arvensis L. essential oil and found it to be significant. Sharma et al. (2009) studied three samples of M. arvensis L. essential oil collected from parts of Northern India, the two samples showed l-menthone as major constituent with the range varying between 27 and 29% while the third had carvone (60%) as its most abundant component. According to some studies, M. arvensis L. is the richest source of natural menthol (Sharma and Tyagi, 1991; Shasany et al., 2000). 3.2. Carvone rich Mentha oil Carvone is a monocyclic monoterpene ketone which exist both as R and S enantiomers in natural products. It has strong antiseptic properties and used as mosquito repellent and in the food industry as a flavouring agent. Carvone-rich essential oils have been recorded only for the three species; M. spicata L., M. longifolia (L.) Huds. and M. sauveolens Ehrh. Carvone is the main component of essential oil of M. spicata L., for which it is widely used as spices. It constitutes 50–65% of its total monoterpene composition (Kokkini et al., 1995). Other major components of M. spicata L. oil are limonene, and 1,8-cineole (Kokkini et al., 1995; Telci et al., 2010). Franzios et al. (1997) who investigated activity of M. spicata L. against D. melanogaster reported 32% carvone in its essential oils. In another study, Sertkaya et al. (2010) which evaluated insecticidal activity of M. spicata L. against mites, reported, 59% carvone, 10% limonene and 7% 1, 8-cineole in GC/MS analysis of its essential oil. Oka et al. (2000) which investigated nematicidal activity of M. spicata L. reported carvone (58%) and limonene (19%) as its major component. In contrast to the above studies, Koliopoulos et al. (2010) investigating larvicidal activity of several essential oil against Culex pipiens, reported piperitenone oxide (36%) followed by 1,8-Cineole (14%) as principle components of M. spicata L. (collected from Greece) essential oil while carvone was present in traces. Essential oil of M. longifolia (L.) Huds. is a carvone rich. The leaf oil of this plant is characterized by high amount of carvone (62%), limonene (19%), piperitenone oxide (26%), ␤-caryophyllene (12%) and 1,8-cineole (10%) (Hendriks and Van Os, 1976). Koliopoulos et al. (2010) reported chemical constituents of essential oil of M. longifolia (L.) Huds. collected from two different region of Greece. One of the cultivar showed carvone (55%) and limonene (20%) as major components while another cultivar has piperitenone oxide (33%), 1,8-Cineole (24%) and trans-Piperitone epoxide (17%) as its principle constituents. M. viridis contain carvone as the major component while 1,8-cineole, Limonene, terpinen-4-ol, ␣-terpineol, were present in appreciable amount (Mkaddem et al., 2009). 3.3. Pulegone/piperitone rich Mentha oil Pulegone, a monoterpene is naturally occurring organic compound and is commonly found in essential oil of M. pulegium L. and M. microphylla K. Koch, among Mentha species. It is used as flavouring agents, perfumery, and in aromatherapy. Essential oil of M. pulegium L. (pennyroyal oil) contains pulegone as its main constituent, the percentage of which ranged from 25 to 92% (Pino et al., 1996; Lawrence, 1998; Aziz and Abbass, 2010). Aziz and Abbass (2010) investigated efficacy of several essential oil against Callosobruchus maculatus, and reported 88% pulegone while Franzios et al. (1997) reported 76% pulegone in essential oil of M. pulegium L. The

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

805

Fig. 1. Chemical structure of the major constituents of mentha oil of different species.

M. pulegium L. oil from different parts of the world always contains pulegone in quantities varying from 10 to 90% (Zwaving and Smith, 1971). However, there are certain reports which have cited pulegone concentration outside the above stated limits. Rim and Jee (2006) reported 99% pulegone concentration while Mahboubi and Haghi (2008) obtained only 2% pulegone in GC/MS analysis of M. pulegium L. essential oil in their respective study. Other components of M. pulegium L. essential oil reported in the above study were iso-Menthone, isopulegone, ␣-pinene (Aziz and Abbass, 2010) and cyclohexanone, 8-hydroxy-␦-4(5)-p-methen-3-one, 3-octanol, dl-limonene, and ␤-pinene (Rim and Jee, 2006). Oil of M. microphylla K. Koch was investigated for its chemical components by GC-MS analysis to give piperitenone oxide (47%) and piperitone oxide (28%) as its major constituents (Mohamed and Abdelgaleil, 2008). Other constituents present in the considerable amounts were caryophyllene oxide, piperitenone and 1,8-cineole;. This study has evaluated inscticidal efficacy of M. microphylla K. Koch oil against Sitophilus oryzae and Tribolium castaneum. Oka et al. (2000) analysed the leaf essential oil of M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds Ehrh. by GC and GC/MS and reported isomers of 1,2-epoxymenthyl acetate (74%) and piperitone (13%) as the major component. In another study by Aziz and Abbass (2010), linalool (35%) and geranyl acetate (10%) was reported as principle constituent of essential oil of M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds Ehrh. 4. Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil Lipophilic nature of plant essential oils facilitates them to interfere with basic metabolic, biochemical, physiological and behavioural functions of insects (Jacobson, 1989). Insecticidal activ-

ity of Mentha oil has been tested and established against various insects/pests. For the sake of clear presentation, these studies have been primarily categorized on the basis of life stage of the target insect, i.e. adult, larvae and other developmental stage. Majority of studies are conducted against adult insects and these can be categorized under repellency and adulticidal activity. In comparison, few studies have targeted assessment of Mentha efficacy for change in reproductive behaviour and other stages (larvae/pupae) of insect life cycle. 4.1. Repellency and adulticidal activity By definition, repellents are substances that act locally or at a distance, deterring an insect (arthropod in general) from flying to, landing on or biting human or animal skin (Blackwell et al., 2003; Nerio et al., 2010). Herbal folklore has long included the use of aromatic herbs and oils as insect repellents. Insect repellents work by providing a vapour barrier deterring the arthropod and other insects by coming into contact with the desired surface (Brown and Hebert, 1997). Repellent properties of essential oils and extracts from genus Mentha are well documented. However, most of these studies are concentrated on pests belonging to coleoptera and diptera species. Adulticidal activities are often monitored through fumigation, topical application, contact toxicity or antifeedancy bioassays. Fumigation is a variant of repellency and is generally used in case of stored grain insects. Ideal fumigant should not leave any hazardous residues, should not adversely affect nutritional quality or processing characteristics of food grains and should be removed by aeration when needed (Plimrner, 1982; Lee et al., 2001). Essential

806

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

oils have shown good fumigant properties, due to high volatility and low toxicity to warm blooded animals (Shaaya et al., 1997). The term topical application is used to describe the medicine which effects only in a specific area, not throughout the body, particularly medicine that is put directly on the skin. There are some references in which insecticidal activity of Mentha has been tested by topical application of oils to the insects. Contact toxicity assay and antifeedance are the other methods to assay Mentha toxicity to insects. Studies pertaining to activity of Mentha against adults insect/pests (repellency and fumigation assay) are relatively large in number. Therefore, this section has been dealt within two subsections, i.e. storage pests and vectors. 4.1.1. Storage pests Insect damage to stored grains and cereal products has been of great concern to man throughout the ages. Storage pests, such as the maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais), the rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), bruchid beetle (Callosobruchus maculates) and others cause quantitative and qualitative damage to grains (Padín et al., 2002; Bakshi, 2009). Quantitative damage, due to grain weight loss caused by insect feeding (Golebiowska, 1969) and qualitative damage due to loss of nutritional and aesthetic value has led to food shortage as well as economic loss world over. As most of these problems related to agricultural pests manifest in the tropical countries, due to agroclimatic conditions and lack of adequate storage facilities, low cost and effective methods of pest management are required. Essential oils being relatively cheap and non-toxic to food grains could be good alternative for currently used chemical insecticides. The results of studies concerning insecticidal activity of Mentha oil against adult of storage pests are compiled in Table 1. Attempts have been made to include a brief experimental information coloumn in the table to facilitate quick but logical comparisons between various reports. Repellent properties of Mentha against agricultural pests were investigated in series of experiments by Odeyemi et al. (2008) and Kumar et al. (2009). Odeyemi et al. (2008) noticed 100% repellency of M. longifolia (L.) Huds. essential oil against Sitophilus zeamais whereas Kumar et al. (2009) reported 85% repellency of M. arvensis L. oil against C. chinensis. Fumigation activity of Mentha oil has been widely investigated against several storage pests. Lee et al. (2001) reported substantial efficacy of M. arvensis L. oil (LC50 —45.5 ␮l/l) as well as its constituents, menthone, linalool and ␣-pinene (LC50 —2.7, 39.2 and 54.9 ␮l/l, respectively) against S. oryzae. Similarly, Varma and Dubey (2001) also reported complete inhibition of S. oryzae and T. castaneum, through the treatment of wheat samples with M. arvensis essential oil. However, appreciable result obtained with M. arvensis L. oil against S. oryzae in these studies was in contrast with the earlier study (Srivastava et al., 1989), which reported fivefold lower mortality rates for the same pest. This could be attributed to different strain of S. oryzae or different composition of M. arvensis L. oil used in the two studies. In another study, Lee et al. (2002) observed that M. × piperita L. (LD50 —25.8 ␮l/l) was slightly better fumigant than M. spicata L. (LD50 —33.1 ␮l/l) against T. castaneum. Essential oil of M. microphylla K. Koch. gave remarkable activity against adults of T. castaneum (LC50 —4.5 ␮l/l) and S. oryzae (LC50 —0.2 ␮l/l) in fumigation bioassays (Mohamed and Abdelgaleil, 2008). However, low lethal doses recorded in this study could also result from prolonged exposure time (72 h) as compared to shorter exposures in earlier studies. Nevertheless, in the contact bioassays (24 h) also, the LC50 for both the insects was quite low (0.01 mg/cm2 ). M. microphylla K. Koch. as well as M. viridis (L.) L. oil showed high efficacy (LC50 —1–5 ␮l/l) as fumigant against A. obtectus (Papachristos and Stamopoulos, 2002). It was noticed that male insects were more susceptible than females. M. viridis (L.) L. oil was also reported to result in 100% mortality of Oryzaephilus surinamen-

sis and T. castaneum, in a contact toxicity bioassay (Al-Jabar, 2006). M. pulegium L. oil also caused 100% mortality of Mayetiola destructor, major pest of wheat in Morocco (Lamiri et al., 2001) while peppermint oil caused 52–62% mortality of green house whiteflies (Aroiee et al., 2005). Some studies have also evaluated the antifeedant activity in terms of feeding deterrence index (FDI) for example the FDI of M. arvensis oil against C. chinensis was 94% (Kumar et al., 2009). Koschier et al. (2002) recorded 15–42% antifeedancy for Thrips tabaci (onion thrips) with M. arvensis L. oil. As evident from the above reports, it is difficult to compare results of different studies or two individual species due to large variation in target insect, mode/scale of experimentation, different exposure regimes/times and concentrations employed (Table 1). Due to variation in any of these parameters, the resulting insecticidal activity of given oil would vary substantially. For instance, Kumar et al. (2009) reported the dependence of insecticidal activity of M. arvensis L. oil on its concentration and exposure period. While 10 h exposure period was required for complete mortality of C. chinensis at lower concentration (1 ␮l/l), the same was achieved within 2 h at higher concentration (200 ␮l/l). In spite of the above mentioned difficulties in comparing the studies, which makes any comment on the relative efficacy of different species very difficult, few generalizations could be made. M. microphylla K. Koch. and M. viridis (L.) L. have been found to be more effective than M. arvensis L. and M. × piperita L. oils. Although not all the studies report chemical composition of oils used, the insecticidal activity of M. microphylla K. Koch. has been attributed to its major compounds piperitenone oxide and piperitone oxide (Mohamed and Abdelgaleil, 2008). To sum up, large number of studies involving insecticidal activity of Mentha species has established it as undisputable insect control agent against adult storage pests. 4.1.2. Vectors/other insect Among vectors/other insects, mostly diptera has been investigated for repellency/fumigation study with essential oil. This work is largely concentrated on mosquito control and related to diseases of public health concern such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue and viral encephalitis (Nerio et al., 2010). Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil against vectors and other insects is summarized in Table 2. M. × piperita L. essential oil provided significant protection against Anopheles annularis (100%), An. Culicifacies (92%), and Cluex quinquefasciatus (84%) (Ansari et al., 2000). The repellent action of Mentha oil obtained in this study was comparable to that of Mylol oil, consisting of dibutyl and dimethyl phthalates which is commercially used as a mosquito repellent. Yang and Ma (2005) also reported >99% protection for mice treated with M. × piperita L. oil from Aedes albopictus. Erler et al. (2006) reported that the efficacy of M. × piperita L. as a repellent increases with increase in its concentration from 5 ␮l (40% repellency) to 10 ␮l (77% repellency). Yang et al. (2005) investigated the adulticidal activity of M. × piperita L. oil against Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus in fumigation bioassay and observed 97% mortality in 24 h. There are very few reports on use of oil of other species of Mentha, apart from M. × piperita L. for mosquito control. However, oil of M. spicata L. and its major constituent piperitenone oxide has also shown promising results for repellency against mosquito species, A. stephensi (Tripathi et al., 2004). Repellent properties of the oil are governed by its major as well as minor constituents. Repellent action of M. × piperita L. is chiefly contributed by its major constituent, menthol. Samarasekera et al. (2008) tested M. × piperita L. essential oil and its constituents for knockdown effect and mortality against three-day old adult females of Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and Anopheles tessellates. Menthol, a major constituent of M. × piperita L. leaf oil, showed higher mosquitocidal activity against An. tessellatus (LC50 —0.36 and KD50 —0.54 ␮g/ml) and Cx. quinquefasciatus (LC50

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

807

Table 1 Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil against storage pests. Mentha oil

Experimental procedure

Target organism (Nos., age)

Effect

Reference

M. longifolia (L.) Huds.

Repellency

100% repellency

Odeyemi et al. (2008)

M. arvensis L.

Repellency (30 min) in Y-shaped olfactometer containing oil soaked cotton swab (100 ␮l/l) Fumigantion (24 h) in 3.4 l glass flask with oil applied on a filter paper & test insect held in small cage Fumigantion, 500 g wheat with oil vapour (600 ppm) -doFumigantion (24 h) in 250 ml conical flasks -do-

Sitophilus zeamais (20, 10–15 days old) C. chinensis (30)

85% repellency

Kumar et al. (2009)

S. oryzae (20 adult insect, 10–15 days old)

LC50 —45.5 ␮l/l air

Lee et al. (2001)

S. oryzae (20)

100% inhibition

Varma and Dubey (2001)

T. castaneum (20) Tribolium castaneum (50)

Acanthoscelides obtectus (50, 1 day old) Male Female

100% inhibition LD50 —25.8 ␮l/l air; LD95 —33.1 ␮l/l air LD50 —35.6 ␮l/l air; LD95 —51.5 ␮l/l air at the concentration of 6 ␮l/l—80% adult mortality; 8 ␮l/l—100% mortality LC50 —1.2 ␮l/air; LC50 —4.4 ␮l/air

A. obtectus (50, 1 day old); Male; Female T. castaneum (20)

LC50 —1.1 ␮l/air; LC50 —5.1 ␮l/air LC50 —4.51 ␮l/l

S oryzae (20) T. castaneum (20)

LC50 —0.21 ␮l/l LC50 —0.01 mg/cm2

S. oryzae (20) Oryzaephilus surinamensis (10)

LC50 —0.01 mg/cm2 At 0.125%–83.3% mortality, at 0.75%–100% mortality

Al-Jabar (2006)

T. castaneum (10) greenhouse whitefly

At 0.75% –100% mortality Fatalities (%); 5 ppm—52.65%; 8 ppm—62.78%

Aroiee et al. (2005)

C. chinensis (30)

Kumar et al. (2009)

C. chinensis

1 ␮l/l—100% in 10 h; 200 ␮l/l—100% in 2 h Feeding deterrence index—94%

Thrips tabaci (10 females)

15–42% antifeedancy

Koschier et al. (2002)

M. arvensis L.

M. arvensis L. M. arvensis L. M. × piperita L. M. spicata L. M. pulegium L.

M. viiridis (L.) L.

M. microphylla K. Koch M. microphylla K. Koch

M. microphylla K. Koch M. microphylla K. Koch

M. microphylla K. Koch M. viridis (L.) L.

M. viridis (L.) L. Peppermint oil

M. arvensis L. M. arvensis L.

M. arvensis L.

Fumigation (2 h) in a polyvinyl plastic chamber covered with gauze cloths on top Fumigantion (48 h) in 1 l glass jars containing dental cotton as vapour diffuser -doFumigantion (72 h) in 1 l glass jars with oils applied on filter papers held in screw caps -doContact toxicity (24 h), oil in acetone (0.006–1 mg/cm2 ) applied on insects -doContact toxicity (14 days), oil in acetone (0.125–0.75%) sprayed on 20 g wheat in 250 ml flasks -doContact toxicity (72 h), oil solution applied via mist system in green house condition Contact toxicity, film of oil on filter paper in petri dish Antifeedant (6 months), 2 ml oil in metallic containers (20 l) with 15 kg chickpea seeds Antifeedant (24) on Leek leaf discs containing oil/compound (0.001–0.1 ml/cm2 of leaf surface) on Petri dishes

T. castaneum (50) Mayetiola destructor (10, 5 males, 5 females)

and KD50 —0.50 ␮g/ml) than minor constituents of the oil, i.e. menthone, ␤-caryophyllene, menthyl acetate and pulegone. Besides being effective for mosquitoes, repellent properties of Mentha oil were also reported against other flies infesting dairy animals. In a repellency assay done on the house fly, Musca domestica, Kumar et al. (2011) obtained 86% repellency with oil of M. × piperita L. (86 ␮g/cm2 ) while the EC formulation (5.49 ␮g/cm2 ) of same gave 94% repellency. Khater et al. (2009) investigated the repellent effect and protection time of the Mentha and other oils against flies, M. domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans, Haematobia irritans and Hippobosca equina, infesting buffaloes. Mentha oil was found to repel flies significantly (P < 0.05) for 6 days post-treatment. Pavela (2008) evaluated insecticidal activity of 34 different essential oils including several Mentha species (M. pulegium L., M. spicata L., M. citrata Ehrh. and M. arvensis L.) against M. domestica under laboratory conditions in fumigant and topical bioassay. In the fumigant bioassay, M. pulegium L. oil (LD50 —4.7 ␮g/cm2 ) was adjudged to be the most effective fumigant among all the oils. For topical bioassay, moderate efficacy of Mentha species was reported, however

Lee et al. (2002)

Lamiri et al. (2001)

Papachristos and Stamopoulos (2002)

Mohamed and Abdelgaleil (2008)

among Mentha species, M. pulegium L. (LD50 —13 ␮g/fly) showed best performance. Apart from the common vectors, studies have also been reported on other insects such as spider mites, house dust mites, etc. When used as fumigant against adults of two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, both M. × piperita L. (>90%) and M. spicata L. (81–82%) demonstrated significant mortality (Choi et al., 2004). While in another study, M. microphylla K. Koch. oil caused 56–100% mortality of T. urticae in fumigation bioassay (Abdelgaleil and Badawy, 2006). Sertkaya et al. (2010) recorded LC50 of 1.8 ␮g/ml for M. spicata L. oil vapour against females of carmine spider mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus. In a different study, Rim and Jee (2006) investigated the susceptibility of Dermatophgoides farinae (American House Dust Mite) and D. pteronyssinus (European House Dust Mite) to M. pulegium L.oil through fumigation and contact bioassay. Both the assays resulted in 100% mortality of insects. Insecticidal activity of M. pulegium L. oil has also been reported for Drosophila auraria whereby 100% adult mortality was obtained within 30 min (Konstantopoulou et al., 1992). Perrucci (1995) obtained 100% mor-

808

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

Table 2 Insecticidal activity of Mentha oil against vectors and other insects. Mentha oil

Experimental condition

Target organism (Nos., age)

Effect

Reference

M. × piperita L.

Repellency (overnight), 1 ml oil applied on exposed parts of human volunteers -do-doRepellency (7 h), oil (7%) applied as paint on the exposed part of the mouse abdomen exposed to mosquitoes (2 min) every hour Repellency (5 h) in a Y-tube (inner dia. 5 cm) shaped glass apparatus Repellency in repellency chamber containing oil (27–86 ␮g/cm2 ) on filter plate in a petri plate Repellency in repellency chamber containing formulation (1.09–5.49 ␮g/cm2 ) on filter plate in a petri plate Repellency (6 days), 2.5 l oil poured along the backline of the buffaloes using graduated squeeze bottle Fumigantion (24 h) in 250 ml conical flask, oil conc. (0.2–3.2%) Fumigantion in plastic container (4.5 by 9.5 cm) with oil (14 × 10−3 ␮l/ml air) applied on filter paper -doFumigantion (24 h), in a cage (250 cm3 ) covered with a breather mesh and hung in the middle of an aquarium (2.9 l) Fumigation (48 h), in 1 l plastic jars with insects fixed to glass slides with double faced scotch tape Fumigation (24 h), in 100 ml glass petri plates, oil conc. —0.5–15 ␮g/ml of air Fumigation (60 min) in petri plate, insect separated from oil on filter paper with wire mesh Contact toxicity (5 min) in petri plate Contact toxicity (24 h) in parafilm-sealed petri dishes with oil on filter paper along with substrate Contact toxicity-0.25 ␮l spread on internal surface of petri dishes; Inhalation activity-in smaller petri dishes enclosed in a bigger one containing 6 ␮l of substance Topical toxicity (24 h), 1 ␮l oil in acetone delivered to the pronota of CO2 anesthetized flies -do-do-do-

An. annularis

Percent protection —100%

Ansari et al. (2000)

An. culicifacies Cx. quinquefasciatus Ae. albopictus

92.3% 84.5% Percentage protection—>99%

Cx. pipiens (10 females)

Repellency; At 5 ␮l—40%; At 10 ␮l—77%

Erler et al. (2006)

Musca domestica

At 86 ␮g/cm2 , Repellency—86%

Kumar et al. (2011)

M. domestica

At 5.49 ␮g/cm2 , Repellency—94%

M. domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans, Haematobia irritans, Hippobosca equine

Significant repellency for 6 days post-treatment

Khater et al. (2009)

C. pipiens quinquefasciatus (10–15)

Yang et al. (2005)

Tetranychus urticae

Total mortality—97%; LC50 —0.6356%; LT50 —13.28 min Mortality—>90%

T. urticae M. domestica (50)

81–82% mortality LD50 —4.7 ␮g/cm2

Pavela (2008)

Tetranychus urticae (30 females)

Mortality —56–100% (1–10 ␮l of oil)

Abdelgaleil and Badawy, 2006

T. cinnabarinus (10 female)

LC50 —1.83 ␮g/ml; LC90 —7.55 ␮g/ml

Sertkaya et al. (2010)

Dermatophgoides farina and D. pteronyssinus (300)

Mortality—0–100% (0.0125–0.1 ␮l/cm2 )

Rim and Jee (2006)

Dermatophgoides farina and D. pteronyssinus (300) Drosophila auraria Adult flies (30, 2–4 day old)

Mortality—2.6–100% (0.0125–0.1 ␮l/cm2 ) 100% at 2.5 ␮l oil

Tyrophagus longior

Contact toxicity-100% mortality; Inhalation activity-100% mortality

Perrucci (1995)

M. domestica (50)

LD50 —13 ␮g/fly

Pavela (2008)

M. domestica M. domestica M. domestica

LD50 —21 ␮g/fly LD50 —21 ␮g/fly LD50 —34 ␮g/fly

M. × piperita L. M. × piperita L. M. × piperita L.

M. × piperita L.

M. × piperita L.

40% EC formulation of M. × piperita L.

Mentha oil

M. × piperita L.

M. × piperita L.

M. spicata L. M. pulegium L.

M. microphylla K. Koch

M. spicata L.

M. pulegium L.

M. pulegium L. M. pulegium L.

Peepermint oil

M. pulegium L.

M. spicata L. M. citarta Ehrh. M. arvensis L.

Yang and Ma (2005)

Choi et al. (2004)

Konstantopoulou et al. (1992)

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

tality of Tyrophagus longior, by application of peepermint oil in a contact toxicity assay. From the above discussed studies it is clear that in case of vectors most of the studies has focussed on the oil of M. × piperita L. (Ansari et al., 2000; Yang and Ma, 2005; Yang et al., 2005; Erler et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2011) and M. pulegium L. (Konstantopoulou et al., 1992; Rim and Jee, 2006; Pavela, 2008). Overall these studies suggest that M. × piperita L. oil is an effective repellent (85–100% repellency) against different types of mosquitoes and also proved to be a successful fumigant against C. Pipiens quinquefasciatus with 97% of adult mortality (Table 2). M. pulegium L. was found to be better fumigant, and equally effective contact toxicant, than as topical toxicant (Rim and Jee, 2006; Pavela, 2008). 4.2. Larvicidal activity The biological control of immature stages are thought to be the most powerful means of reducing target population of dipteran and other agricultural pests (Rey et al., 1999). Larvicidal activities of various Mentha oils are listed in Table 3. In the vector category, several studies have focused on mosquito larva from different species. Ansari et al. (2000) observed 85–100% mortality in case of third instar larvae of An. Stephensi, Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus using M. × piperita L. oil (3 ml/m2 ) while Amer and Mehlhorn (2006) noticed 53% mortality of Ae. aegypti larvae using 50 ppm M. x piperita L. Recently, Koliopoulos et al. (2010) compared the larvicidal activity of various carvone rich chemotypes against Cx. pipiens larvae. M. suaveolens was found to be most effective larvicide with LD50 of 47.88 mg/l, followed by M. spicata L. (LD50 —52.85 mg/l) and M. longifolia L. (LD50 —59.33 mg/l). Piperitenone oxide, one of the major constituent of M. suaveolens Ehrh. showed better larvicidal activity with LD50 of 9.95 mg/l. Larvicidal activity of M. spicata L. has also been evaluated (Table 3) against larvae of An. stephensi (LD50 —82.95 ␮l/ml), Ae. aegypti (LC50 —67.8 ppm) and Ae. arabiensis (LC50 —85.9 ppm). In contrast to several studies discussed for mosquito larvae, only one study has taken up control of house fly larvae through M. × piperita L. oil and its formulation (Kumar et al., 2011). This study depicted 100% mortality of larvae with tremendous reduction in lethal concentration for formulation as compared to the oil. Among the other insects, Pavlidou et al. (2004) evaluated the susceptibility of larvae of Bactrocera oleae (olive fruit fly) and Drosophila melanogaster to the oil of M. pulegium L. and its main constituents, pulegone and menthone. The lethal doses of pulegone and menthone for B. oleae (LD50 —0.09, 0.13 ␮l/ml) and D. melanogaster (LD50 —0.17, 1.29 ␮l/mL) were significantly lower than that obtained from M. pulegium L. oil (LD50 —0.22, 2.09 ␮l/ml). Franzios et al. (1997) also reported pulegone to be most effective for D. melanogaster larvae followed by carvone and menthone. Konstantopoulou et al. (1992) investigated M. pulegium L. oil against late third instar larvae of D. auraria and obtained 80% mortality in 48 h. Studies concerning use of Mentha for control of storage pest larvae are scanty as compared to those on vectors and other insects. Pavela (2005) investigated the insecticidal efficacy of oils of M. spicata L., M. pulegium L., M. citrata Ehrh. and M. arvensis L. for larvae of Spodoptera littoralis in fumigation and topical application. In fumigation bioassay, M. pulegium L. was found to be most effective (LD50 of 11.5 ml/m3 ) while for topical assay M. citrata Ehrh. was best performer (LD50 —0.11 ␮l/larvae). For the larvae of tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura, 40–50% mortality was reported in topical application (Isman et al., 2001) and 30% mortality in antifeedancy assay with different Mentha oils (Firake and Pande, 2009). To conclude, in the vector category, the larvicidal investigations were dominated by M. × piperita L. and M. spicata L. oil. Thus, it will be interest-

809

ing to investigate other promising Mentha oils for control of vector larvae. 4.3. Growth and reproduction inhibition activity The growth regulator effect can be understood as malfunctioning of insect metamorphosis which may be either its complete inhibition or prevention to occur at the right time (so that development of insect takes place in unfavourable condition). It may be due to alteration of hormones related to metamorphosis which cause malformation, sterility or death in insects. Some botanical extracts, termed Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs), can have a pronounced effect on the developmental period, growth, adult emergence, fecundity, fertility and egg hatching resulting in effective control. Other phytochemicals have shown growth inhibiting effects on the various developmental stages (Regnault-Roger et al., 2004; Malik et al., 2007) and prolongation of instar and pupae durations, inhibition of larval and pupal molting, morphological abnormalities and mortality especially during molting (Shaalan et al., 2005). Volatile oils reduce egg hatchability due to either the toxicity of the oil vapours to eggs or some chemical ingredients present in the volatiles of tested oils, which probably diffuse into eggs, thus affecting vital processes associated with embryonic development (Papachristos and Stamopoulos, 2004). Growth and reproduction inhibition activity of different Mentha oils against different pests/insects has been summarized in Table 4. Fecundity and fertility of female mosquito, emerged from the larvae treated with different concentration of M. × piperita L. oil was investigated by Ansari et al. (2000). At the concentration of 2 ml/m2 , the percentage reduction in fecundity and fertility varied substantially for the emerged females of Ae. aegypti (29 and 94%), Cx. quinquefasciatus (100 and 100%) and An. stephensi (52 and 97%) while at the higher concentration of oil (3 ml/m2 ) no fecundity and fertility was observed in any of the emerged females. Tripathi et al. (2004) also reported 40% inhibition in oviposition of An. stephensi with oils of M. spicata L. (60.0 ␮g/ml). Kumar et al. (2011) reported 100% inhibition of adult emergence from the M. × piperita L. oil treated pupae of M. domestica. In another study, Regnault-Roger and Hamraoui (1993) tested M. × piperita L. oil against A. obtectus and observed that the mean oviposition in female was reduced to 39% while mean number of adult emergence was decreased to 32%. Kumar et al. (2009) evaluated oviposition deterrency and ovicidal activity of Mentha oil for C. chinensis. The study showed increase in oviposition deterrency with increase in oil concentration and complete inhibition in egg laying at oil concentration of 10 ␮l/l. At still higher concentration (200 ␮l/l) adult emergence was completely inhibited. Aziz and Abbass (2010) investigated the effect of different concentration of M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. and M. pulegium L. (0.25–1.0%) on C. maculates through a series of bioassays. During the bioassay procedure, oil treated Vigina radiate seeds were inoculated with two pairs of newly emerged C. maculates. The study reported significant reduction in female fecundity with both the oils of M. × rotundifolia (L.) Huds. (64–90%) and M. pulegium L. (82–88%), with the later showing significantly better performance at lower concentration. Also, significantly higher mortality (91–98%) of the resulting larvae and pupae was reported for both the oils. Mentha oil (0.5%) also showed significant effect on pupation (decreased by 58%) and adult emergence (decreased by 71%) for S. litura (Firake and Pande, 2009) while in case of D. auraria it was found to be effective for the prevention of egg hatching (Konstantopoulou et al., 1992). Ovicidal effects of different constituent of Mentha oil have been investigated by treating eggs of T. castaneum with l-menthol and its derivatives (Aggarwal et al., 2001). Menthyl acetate was found to be most effective (no hatching) followed by menthyl propionate and menthyl formate which showed 100 ␮l/l air Mortality—100%

Linalool Linalool Linalool Linalool Menthol Menthol Menthol Menthol Menthol (+)-Carvone (+)-Carvone (+)-Carvone (+)-Carvone (+)-Carvone Pulegone Pulegone Pulegone Pulegone Pulegone (+)-Carvone (−)-Carvone

-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-do-docontact toxicity (24 h) on adults, 0.125–80 ␮g/cm2 applied on black cotton fabric in a petri dish -do-

Linalool

Trays containing 200 ml of sea water and monoterpene (0.5–30 ␮g/200 ml sea water)

(−)-Linalool

l-menthol

Fumigation (24 h) in 1 l glass jars containing monoterepenes (1–100 mg) on filter paper and attached to the undersurface of screw caps of jars -do-do-do-do-doRepellency, 20 ␮g substance in 1.0 ml acetone on half area of the filter-paper -do-do-doFumigation, 1.0 ml substance in acetone on a filter paper placed in 1 l plastic jar -do-

l-menthol

-do-

l-menthol

-do-

l-menthol l-menthol

Contact toxicity in petri dishes, 1.0 ␮l applied to the dorsal surface of insect -do-

l-menthol

-do-

l-menthol

-do-

Menthol

Inhalation activity in smaller petri dishes enclosed within a bigger one containing 6 ␮l of substance Contact toxicity, 0.25 ␮l spread on internal surface of petri dishes

(−)-Linalool (−)-Menthol (−)-Menthol (−)-Carvone (−)-Carvone l-menthol l-menthol l-menthol l-menthol l-menthol

Menthol

T. castaneum (50) T. castaneum T. castaneum M. domestica (10)

Blattella germanica (5) T. castaneum (20) S. oryzae (20) Oryzaephilus surinamensis (20) M. domestica (10) B. germanica. (5) T. castaneum (20) S. oryzae (20) O. surinamensi (20) M. domestica (10) B. germanica. (5) T. castaneum (20) S. oryzae (20) O. surinamensi (20) M. domestica (10) B. germanica. (5) T. castaneum (20) S. oryzae (20) O. surinamensi (20) Tyrophagus putrescentiae (30, 7–10 days old) T. putrescentiae (30, 7–10 days old) Seaside mosquito, Ochlerotatus caspius (15, 4th stage larvae) S. oryzae (20)

Mortality—100% Mortality—10% Mortality—0% Mortality—100%

T. castaneum (20) S. oryzae (20) T. castaneum (20) S. oryzae (20) T. castaneum (20) C. maculatus (10)

LC50 —105.6 ␮g/cm2 LC50 —221.7 ␮g/cm2 LC50 —>500 ␮g/cm2 LC50 —28.2 ␮g/cm2 LC50 —19.8 ␮g/cm2 Repellency—100%

R. dominica (10) S. oryzae (10) T. castaneum (10) C. maculatus (20, 5–7 days old) R. dominica (20, 5–7 days old) S. oryzae (20, 5–7 days old)

Repellency—72% Repellency—78% Repellency—82% LD99 —8.4 mg/litre space LD99 —7.9 mg/litre space LD99 —7.9 mg/litre space LD99 —28.1 mg/litre space LD99 —823.5 ␮g/mg body weight LD99 —1393.7 ␮g/mg body weight LD99 —1068.5 ␮g/mg body weight LD99 —1545.4 ␮g/mg body weight 100% mortality

T. castaneum (20, 5–7 days old) C. maculatus (10 adult, 5–7 days old) R. dominica (10 adult, 5–7 days old) S. oryzae (10 adult, 5–7 days old) T. castaneum (10 adult, 5–7 days old) T. longior (10 adult) Tyrophagus longior (10 adult)

Mortality—100% Mortality—30% Mortality—0% Mortality—0% Mortality—5% Mortality—100% Mortality—80% Mortality—50% Mortality—20% Mortality—100% Mortality—100% Mortality—100% Mortality—100% Mortality—100% Mortality—100% LD50 —4.62 ␮g/cm2

Lee et al. (2002)

Lee et al. (2003)

Lee et al. (2006)

LD50 —5.23 ␮g/cm

2

LC50 —55.73 ␮g/ml

Knio et al. (2008)

LC50 —66.7 ␮g/cm2

Abdelgaleil et al. (2009)

100% mortality

Aggarwal et al. (2001)

Perrucci (1995)

P. Kumar et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 34 (2011) 802–817

813

Table 5 (Continued ) Chemical constituents

Experimental condition

Target organism (Nos., age)

Effect

Reference

Menthol

Repellency (1 h) in two cylindrical plastic tubes, one containing compound (1.25–20 g l−1 ) on filter paper, other mosquitoes -do-

Cx. quinquefasciatus (15 adult females, 3 day old)

LC50 —0.50 ␮g/ml; KD50 —0.50 ␮g/ml

Samarasekera et al. (2008)

An. tessellates (15 adult females, 3 day old) B. oleae (30)

LC50 —0.36 ␮g/ml; KD50 —0.54 ␮g/ml LD50 —0.09 ␮l/ml

B. oleae (30) D. melanogaster (30) D. melanogaster (30) T. putrescentiae (10,