ISSN 0393 - 9375
HUMAN EVOLUTION VOLUME25 25 VOLUME
JANUARY - JUNE -- N.3-4-2010 N.1-2 - 2010 JULY - DECEMBER
ANGELO PONTECORBOLI EDITORE FIRENZE
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR MANKIND STUDIES
HUMAN EVOLUTION an International Journal Edited by: B. CHIARELLI Lab. of Anthropology and Ethnology, Univ. of Florence Via del Proconsolo,12 - 50122 Firenze - Italy Tel. 0039 55 2743023 - fax 0039 55 2743038 Email:
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Editorial secretary: S. Magherini - Lab. of Anthropology and Ethnology Via del Proconsolo, 12 - 50122 Firenze - Italy Advisory Board: Y. Coppens, France H. De Lumley, France P.V. Tobias, South Africa M. Day, England M. Goodman, Usa Referees and local representatives for 2009 (to be completed and revised) Agelarakis A. , USA - Armelagos, G.J., USA - Ayala, F.J., USA - Bada, J.L., USA - Bernis, C., Spain -Boaretto E., Israel Campbell, B.G., UK - Cann, R., USA - Chen, Y., China - Ciochon, R.L., USA - Conroy G.C. USA - Cormack J., Canada Demeter F., France - Desmond Clark, J., USA - Dixon P.W. Usa - Falk, D., USA - Franzen, J.W., Germany - Frayer, D., USA - Gingerich, P.D., USA - Godinot, France - Güleç, K. Turkey - Gültekim, T. Turkey - Indriati E., Indonesia - Hillowala, R.A., USA - Holloway, R.L., USA - Hublin J.J. Germany - Ishida, H., Japan - Johanson, D.C., USA - Kurland, J., USA Martinez A. Cuba - Mascie-Taylor C.G.N., UK - Moggi Cecchi J. Italy - Lieberman, P., USA - Lisowski, F.P., Australia Mac Laughing, S.M., Scotland - Martin, R., USA - Nishida T., Japan - Parker, S.T., USA - Poulianos, A.N., Greece - Salzano, F.M., Brazil - Senut, B., France - Shen G., China - Sigmon, B., Canada -Shahshahni S. Iran - Simons, P., Monaco - Smith D.G., USA - Soebono H., Indonesia - Sugiyama Y., Japan - Tattersall, USA - Teleki, G., USA - Thorne, A.G., Australia Trinkaus, E., USA - Ubelaker H., USA - Vogel, C., Germany - Vojno, M.S., URSS - White, T., USA - Wolpoff, M., USA Woo, J.K., China - Wood, B., UK - Xirotiris N., Greece - Zoubov, A.A., Russia.
Book reviews and Book news: S. Magherini - Lab. of Anthropology and Ethnology Via del Proconsolo, 12 - 50122 Firenze (Italy)
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On cover: Drawing by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - Study of the human body
Vol. 25 - n.3-4 (167-171) - 2010
HUMAN EVOLUTION
BRAIN&INCREASE& AND&HUMAN&KNOWLEDGE “I#do#not#remember#any#hypothesis#formulated#by#me## ####which#I#didn’t#have#to#abandon#or#modify” Charles(Darwin( biologist,(geologist,(zoologist(and(botanist
#“Every#constitution#is#contingent”# Edmund(Husserl( philosopher(and(mathematician
PREFACE A(short(and(partial(preface(as(guest(editor(of(Vol.(25(@(No.(3@4(of(the(journal(Human# Evolution(on(request(of(its(editor(Prof.(Brunetto(Chiarelli,(President(of((the(International( Institute(for(Humankind(Studies. Short,(because(it(presents(8(selected(works,(delivered(during(the(III(edition(of(the( International(Meeting(Anxieties&in&Modernity&“Nature,&Nurture&and&Future:&Social& ,( held(
Partial
@
on(Brain&increase(and&its&evolution The(selected(and(applied(method(in(all(the(editions(of(the(meeting(consists(in(the( Transversality, the(Ecole(Normale(Superieure(and(from(the(Institut(Jean(Nicod(in(Paris.(“Variations&on& the&theme&of&invariants:&conceptual&and&mathematical&dualities&in&physics&vs.&biolO “Cultural&cortical&recycling&and&the& cross? ing?over experimental#inter? disciplinary#method,(on(the(cognitive(origin(of(concepts(and(the(entanglement(among(
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pass$through$it$with$a$cross%logic
phenomenality$of$ description%vs.%narration). artefact% money
cultural%recycling. “Decision)making.processes.and.criteria.for.intuitive.and.exten) sional.reasoning”
“Naturalizing.consciousness” heuristic qualia/quanta$or$mate7 rial/immaterial “The.origin.and.philogenetic.role.of.the.mind”,$is$ a$continuum biological%computing). implicit% and% explicit% memory.$ “Know. yourself,. the. neurobiology. of. the. memory”
“From.be) haviour.to.its.underlying.biological.substratum:.an.experimental.journey.into.the. genesis.of.movement”
“A.short.essay.on.the.probability.of.the.existence.of.life.and. intelligence. elsewhere. in. the. universe”
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Grenoble.(The(author,(a(real(migrant(to(research,(started(as(a(biochemist(and(also(gained( primordial# metabolism @
I(would(like(to(thank(Prof.(Chiarelli(for(having(invited(me(as(Guest(Editor(of(this( Human#Evolution(the(selection(of(
(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((Prof.(Mario(Pissacroia Editor(in(chief((
[email protected] E@mail:(pissacroia@
[email protected](and(
( written(with(Dr.(Stefano(Magherini,(we(present(the(data(on(the(hominoid(brain(evolu@ tion(which,(I(hope,(will(be(of(some(interest(for(our(readers. possible& similarity& of& genetic& sequences& for& EMX,& OTX,& PHOX2& and& MEIS,& HoO meobox&genes&involved&in&the&phyloOontogenetic&development&of&the&human&brain& ,&
(
Prof.(Brunetto(Chiarelli International(Institute(for(Humankind(Studies For#Research##Related#to#Human#Origins,#Behaviour##and#Survival
E@mail:( www.iihs.it A#special#thank#is#due#to#Dr.#Stefano#Magherini# for#the#care#that#he#devoted#for#the#editing#of#the#present#issue
((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
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III&edition&of&the&International&Meeting& Anxieties&in&Modernity&“Nature,&Nurture&and&Future:&Social&Acquisitions&of&the&ScienO (Florence,&Italy,&4O8&December&2009)& Frezza&G.&and&Longo&G.
Bourgeois&Gironde&S.& Smorti&A. Decision@making(processes(and(criteria(for(intuitive(and(extensional(reasoning Maldonato&M.&and&Dell’Orco&S. Naturalizing(consciousness Giuditta&A. The(origin(and(philogenetic(role(of(the(mind Pepeu&G. Cangiano&L. genesis(of(movement FontecillaOCamps&J.C. universe
&Brain&increase&and&its&evolution Magherini&S.&and&Chiarelli&B. Fiore&M.G.&and&Chiarelli&B. ontogenetic(development(of(the(human(brain(and(of(the(non@human(primate(one
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HUMAN EVOLUTION
Frezza&G. Università degli Studi di Roma Tre; France Email:
[email protected]
Longo&G. d’Informatique et CREA Email:
[email protected]
KEY WORDS: conceptual*dualities,* physical*singularities,*variability,* invariants,*evolvability
Vol. 25 - n.3-4 (173-185) - 2010
Variations)on)the)theme)of)invariants:) conceptual)and)mathematical)dualities) in)physics)vs)biology the&invariants&in&physics&and&some&particular&invariants&in&biol: ogy&is&presented&through&conceptual&dualities&that&we&highlight& and& further& specify& here& in& their& main& theoretical& differences.& Many& controversies& in& relating& physics& and& biology,& for& in: stance&the&question&of&a&physicalist&approach&in&biology,&derive& from&strong&and&well:established&epistemological&and&cultural& guardrails.&Our&purpose&is&to&identify&at&least&some&of&the&pat: terns& or& principles& that& may& guide& theory& building& in& biology& by&physico:mathematical&methodologies&which&simultaneously& : logical& extensions& of& physical& theories& that& are& based& just& on& “conceptual&practices”&from&physics&and¬&necessarily&on&its& laws&and&objects.&To&this&purpose&we&stress&the&divergence&be: tween& mathematical& invariants& and& variables& in& physics& with& respect&to&biological&variability&(and&evolvability),&which&is&the& : stability&of&living&entities,&in&reference&to&the¬ion&of&extended& criticality,&a¬ion&which&goes&beyond&the&physical&theory&of& point:wise&critical&transitions.&Protensive&activities&will&then&be& mentioned&as&proper&to&the&“living&state&of&matter”&and&extrane: ous&to&physical&theoretizing.
When&one&tries&to&elaborate&a&mathematical&theory&apt&to&explain&some&aspects&of&bi: ology,&though&starting&from&the&clue&of&one&and&unique&materiality,&anyhow&one&becomes& aware&of&some&peculiarities.&Especially&during&the&elaboration&of&theoretical*extensions* of&physics&by&new&observables&(Bailly&and&Longo,&2008,&2009),&which&gives&an&account& in&(possibly&new)&mathematical&terms&of&living*beings’*singularity,&some&characteristic& claim&of&a&duality:&a&conceptual&opposition&between&some&theoretical&aspects&of&the&two& disciplines.&Table&1&synthetically&shows&a&representation&of&some&conceptual&dualities&or,& could&we&say&borrowing&the&term&from&biology,&a*crossing*over&between&physical&and& biological&theories.&For&example,&in&our&approach,&biological&time&and&its&irreversibility& are&viewed&as&constitutive&operators&of&biological&complexity&while&energy&is&analyzed& as&a¶meter,&in&contrast&to&the&understanding&of&time&as&a¶meter&and&energy&as& appears& as& a& parameter& in& allometric& (scaling)& laws,& in& biology& (Savage& et* al.,& 2004).& Moreover,&as&a&conceptual&symmetry&to&entropy,&we&also&proposed,&in&the&same&paper,&the&
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FREZZA, LONGO
notion&of&anti:entropy&as&a&(measurable)&local&reversal&of&(physical)&entropy&production& corresponding&to&increasing&biological&organization,&both&in&Evolution&and&embryogen: esis.& : sional&approach&to&time&includes&a&physical&(thermodynamical)&time&plus&a&second&di: mension,&which&accommodates&proper&biological&rhythms&(Bailly&et*al.,&2010). Let’s& add& that& the& theoretical& notion& of& conceptual* opposition& is& sharply& distin: in&biology.&The&strength&of&this&methodological&insight&lies&in&a&cross:logical&procedure& that&clearly&shows&the&reversal&of¶meters&and&relevant&observables&between&physical& : : cal&leap,&but&to&underline&a&methodological&difference&between&the&two&theoretical&ap: proaches.&&We&are&deeply&convinced,&it&is&our&metaphysical&assumption,&that&living&beings& are&just&bunches&of&molecules.&The&point&is&which*kind*of*theory&may&help&us&to&better& : both¤t&frames.&Moreover,&and&in&contrast&to&the&incompatibility&of&the&Quantum& Field&w.r.&to&the&Relativistic&Field,&our&proposals&for&biology&are&based&on&compatible* extensions&of&some& &physical&theories.&Of&course,&here&our&attempt&is&purely&phe: nomenal&and&the&absence&of&any&reference&to&underpinning&elementary&physico:chemical& processes& corresponds& to& the& historical& practice& of& physics.& In& fact& this& discipline& has& been&able&to&describe,&in&a&very&effective&manner,&Galilean&inertia&and&the&falling&of&bod: ies&without&any&reference&whatsoever&to&Democritus’&atoms&of&which&these&bodies&were& still&disregarding&quanta,&since,&as&of&now,&the&gravitational&(relativistic)&and&quantum& : ent&phenomenal&levels&has&been&a&crucial&part&of&the&history&of&physics.&The& (Quantum/Relativistic)& goes& on& by& bringing& two& well& constructed& theories& in& relation& under&a&novel&perspective. This&diagram&gives&a&synthetic&representation&of&some&conceptual&dualities&that&have& been&individually&discussed&in&detail&(Bailly&and&Longo,&2008 &2009 &2010Z&Longo&and& Montévil,&2011):
175 TABLE conceptual&dualities. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
PHYSICS
BIOLOGY
specific trajectories (geodetics) and generic objects
generic trajectories (possible/compatible with ecosystem) and specific objects
point-wise criticality
extended criticality
(Schrödinger) energy is an operator (Hf), time is a parameter f(t,x)
energy is a parameter (allometry), time is an operator (measured by entropy and anti-entropy production)
reversible time (or irreversible for degradation-simplified thermodynamics)
double irreversibility of time (thermodynamics and phenotypic complexity constitution)
randomness is non deterministic or deterministic non predictability within a pre-given space phase
randomness is intrinsic indetermination made by changing phase space (ontogenesis and phylogenesis)
Table 1. A possible theoretical differentiation between inert and living matter is described through conceptual dualities.
objects&are&generic:&they&are&invariants& for&experiments&and&theory&(for&instance,&a&Galilean&weight&or&an&electron&as&solution&to& Dirac’s&equation&is&equivalent&to&any&other,&it&is&generic)Z&while&trajectories&are& as&they&are&geodesics,&an&optimal&path&in&the&intended&phase&space.&This&is&physics,&from& 1
objects&(rather&than&trajectories),&should&be&described&as&
&(rather&than&generic).&
the&other&hand,&in&biology:&trajectories,&phylogenetic,&ontogenetic,&or&even&those&of&ac: tions,&are&genericZ&they&are&co:possible&ones,&i.e.&they&are&the&result&of&paths&compatible& with&the&co:constituted&ecosystem&and&they&do¬&follow&optimality&criteria.&This&is,&for& instance,&one&of&the&reasons&for&the&explosion&of&the&number&of&species,&whom&Darwin: 1 Geodetics are obtained as sums or integrals of gradients, sometimes highly complex ones, but always as “critical” paths, that is maxima or minima. Mathematically, they extremize a functional in some phase space (this is Lagrange vs Hamilton approach). Even in Quantum Mechanics a quanton will do the same not in an ordinary space-time but mines a quanton’s evolution as the dynamics of a probability law.
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ian&natural&selection&theory&refers&to:&trajectories&are&explorations*of*compatible*paths.** (as&life&growth&or&explosion&and,&then,&selection&of&the&incompatible)&and&therefore&no& phylogenesis&nor&ontogenesis.& : sible&(or&generic)&ones,&yet&subjects&to&structural&and&phyletic&“inertia”&such&as&architec: tural&and&phyletic&constraints&(Gould&and&Lewontin,&1979).&Ontogenesis&goes&along&ge: neric&paths&as&well,&the&co:possible&ones,&yet&with&respect&to&more&restrictive&constraints,& that&are&developmental,&which&are&a&subcategory&of&&phyletic&constraints.&For&example,&in& mammals,&evidently&the&mother’s&womb&canalizes&embryogenesis&“more&restrictively”& than&an&ecosystem&may&canalize&the&evolution&of&a&species.&There&is&a&superposition&and& an&entanglement&of&constraints&as&Gould&and&Lewontin&have&clearly&enlightened&in&their& distinction&of& architectural,&phyletic&and& developmental&constraints&(Gagliasso,& 2009).&& In&the&lines&of&Evo:Devo&theories,&we&can&add&that&both&phylogenesis&and&ontogenesis& are&forms&of&differently&canalized&variability.&In&fact,&the&core&question&of&evolutionary& developmental&biology&is&evolvability,&that&explains&how&variation&is&generated&through& causes.&“Development&matters&to&evolutionary&explanations&because&it&structures&the&way& et*al.,&2007,&p.&400). generic*tra= jectories,&whether&they&exist&(for&example&Feynman&path’s&integral)&are&only&rare&excep: in&the&possibility&to&reiterate&the&path,&it&would&statistically&test&every&possibility.&That’s& why&an&analysis&of&physical&trajectories&through&criteria&based&on&“selection”&does¬& contribute&to&physical&intelligibility:&physical&theories&are&much&stronger,&as&they&propose& extrema&of&functionals&(by&energy&conservation&principles,&say,&or&geodetics). a&chiasm. TABLE ity”®arding&biology&vs&physics.
:
PHYSICS specific trajectories (geodetics) generic objects specific trajectories (geodetics) generic objects
BIOLOGY --------> -------->
generic trajectories (possible/compatible with ecosystem) specific objects
-------->
specific objects
-------->
generic trajectories (possible/compatible with ecosystem)
Table 2. Trajectories and objects stand to specificity and genericity in a “crossed inverse proportionality” regarding biology vs physics.
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3.)Laws)and)dynamics)))))))&&&&&&&&&&& It& is& nevertheless& useful& to& insist& on& the& idea& that& every& theoretical:mathematical& structuring&is&a&human&construction:&science&is&a&construction&of&objectivity&(as&spelled& out&at&length&in&Bailly&and&Longo,&2010).&There&is&always&a&friction&of&the&physical:bio: logical&world&with&the&cognitive&practices&and&representations&which&lead&to&a&theory.&We& may&now&reverse&our&perspective,&in&a&Kantian&way:&our&representation&of&the&crossed&re: lation&of&the&physical&versus&the&biological&world&is¬&properly&the&way&matter&is&(thing& in&itself).&Rather&it&is&our&method&to&norm&and&rule&the&matter&proper&to&these&different& domains,&inert&and&living&matter,&its&phenomenality ontological,&but&a&methodological&question.&But&starting&from&this&methodological&frame& we&may&now&move&a&step&in&the&direction&of&matter. : cipal&references&trajectories&and&objects&in&physics&and&biology&and&we&have&evaluated& : correlation&of&the&object&with&its&route,&we& become&aware&that&in*physics&they&are&described&as&independent by&the&physical&law.&This&allows&having&generic*objects&with& ,&that&is& our&correspondence&above.&In&biology not*possible:&living&beings&are&never*independent&from&their&paths.&Each&organism&is&the& result&of&its&own&route&and&history. With&this&crossing&over&one&becomes&aware&in&a&very&immediate&way&of&different& physical&vs&biological&principles.&They&operate&in&the&one&and&only&materiality,&which&is& differently&organized&and&offers&two&different&phenomenalities: –&what&is&exactly&the&fundamental*principle&in&the&case&of&physics,&the&genericity&of&the& object&and&thus&the&universality&of&the&law,&is&opposite&to&the&primary*criterion&in&biology,& –&what&is¬*relevant&or&without&meaning&in&physics,&as&errors&or&history,&becomes&a&core* principle&in&biology,&as&we&will&see&in§ions&4&and&5&more&in&detail.&We&can&argue&that& if&one&wants&to&express&into&physical&terms&the&correlation&between&the&object&and&the& trajectory,&the&physical&law&is¬&straightforward&suitable&for&biological&domainZ –& what& is& a& correlation& in& physics& becomes& more& properly& an& interaction& in& biology,& where&variability&is&one&of&the&principal&actor&in&all&processes. In& general& a& law& for& objects& and& trajectories& of& one& domain& would& not& suite& the& other,&but&this&fact,&at&least,&can&be&expressed&by&an&opposition,&as&we&are&proposing.&We& claim& that& these& conceptual& oppositions& may& contribute& to& theory& building& in& biology&
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methodological&assumption.&It&is&an&epistemological&attitude&which&may&help&avoiding& a&surreptitious&determinism&as&well&as&teleological&imposition&from&above&that&describes& every&objects&as&“made&for”&or&“function&of”. 4.)Exploring)possibilities : history&and&on&the&traces&of&history&as&biological&“memory”.&The&historical:evolutionary& and&ontogenetic&course&codetermines&the&process&of&individualization&of&each&living&be: ing,&species...&From&this&standpoint&we&can&underline&also&how&the&role&played&by&error& and&pathologies&clearly&separates&a&possible&theory&of&living&phenomena&from&any&physi: include&errors,&as&they&follow&optimality&(see&next§ion).&Genericity&of&trajectories,&on& the&contrary,&allows&including&pathologies&in&the&analysis&of&living&phenomena:&pathol: ogy&may&be&at&the&origin&of&new&possible&evolutionary&paths.&Similarly&even&an&“error”& within&the&process&of&learning,&via&retention&(or&memory),&can&precede&a&successful&ac: tion,&via&protention&(or&anticipation)&and&so&on.&&These¬ions,&that&are¬&proper&to& theory&of&living&phenomena,&in&particular&when&attempting&to&mathematize&them.&Their& that&in&order&to&“unify”&is&necessary&to&have&at&least&two&theories&of&different&phenomenal& evolution&to&human&action,&is&exploring*possibilities We&want&to&enlighten&this&passage,&because&it&gives&a&good&general&appreciation&of& living&phenomena.&We&can&describe&living&process&as:& –*active&(protension)& –*responding&(to&the&environment&and&natural&selection)& –&but¬&determined*completely*by*a*pre=given : ability&and&evolvability&exclude&such&a&complete&determination,&as&we&are&trying&to&show& through&the&conceptual&dualities&hinted&above&(which&suggest&a&biological&form&of&ex: tended&“determination”).&
179
5.)Right)and)wrong:)errors)and)optimality “So*far*we*have*incorporated*only*our*errors* and*all*of*our*consciousness*refers*to*errors!” FREDERICH,NIETZSCHE,
For&better&clarifying&this¢ral&idea&of&living&processes&as&exploring&possibilities,& local&gradients,&thus&by&the&sum&of&local&optimizations&(a&path&integral,&mathematically),& a&stone&or&a&river&always&chooses&the&best&path,&a&geodetics.&From&this&very&same&stand: : tensive&attitude,&as&it&can&go&the&wrong&way&and&thus&learn.&With&protensive&we&mean&a& very&basal&attitude,&proper&of&living&beings,&to&act,&interact&and&react,&based&on&memory& and&along&an&expectation,&as&a&primitive&form&of&cognition.&This&allows&enlightening&a& proper&“biological&inertia”,&which&is&part&of&the&peculiar&dynamics&of&organisms’&actions& and&rarely&a&perfect&geodetics&(Longo&and&Montévil,&2011).&Similarly,&from&an&observer& standpoint,&evolutionary&and&embryogenetic&paths&are&mostly&wrong&(most&species&are& extinct&and&embryogenesis&fails&in&a&large&percentage&of&the×).& This&metaphor&allows&to&appreciate&at&the&level&of&the&outside&observer&the&“ques: explicit&the&use&made&of&optimum&and&wrong perspective&of&physics&and&especially&in&the&case&in&which&optimum&refers&to&a&geodetics.* non:teleological&perspective.&In&physics&what&goes&right&goes&right&and&it*doesn’t*make* sense*something*that*goes*wrong&as&we&have&discussed&above.&But&in&biology*everything* goes*right*or*wrong*only*and*always*from*a*particular*standpoint&and&with*a*crossing*of* viewpoints&(Berthoz&and&Petit,&2006).&&Only&under&the&illusion&of&a&disentangled&observer,& nothing&goes&right&and¬hing&goes&wrong,&as&it&happens&in&physics&where&the&universal& *situated,*incorpo= rated,*contingent&and&autonomous,&which&means&necessarily&in&a&determined&space&and& viewpoint&coming&out.&For&instance,&in&an&aggression&of&an&organism&by&a&virus&the&posi: tions&that&emerge&are&radically&opposed:&what&is&right&for&one&is&wrong&for&the&other.& Remembering&Varela’s&closure&thesis&(1979),&let’s&say&that&all&possible&variability& of&a&living&organism&is&organized,&closed&and&immanent&to&the&individual&itself.&“Omnia* mea*mecum*porto”,&as&the&Stoic&precept&saysZ&that&we&could&translate&here&as&“Everything&
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being*itself.&The&individual& doesn’t&receive&from&“abroad”&its&autonomy:&it&is&this&autonomy.&Let’s&specify&that&as& every&process&also&individualization&is&contingent&and&is&led&through&the&co:constituted& interaction&of&the&organism&with&the&environment&and&through&its&history&as&we&hinted& above.& We&can&cross:refer&to&what&said&in&previous§ions.&The&contingency&and&the&inde: : actions,&selection&and&evolution&(both&in&ontogenesis&and&phylogenesis).&In&fact&the&intel: ligibility&provided&by&Darwin’s&Evolution&is¬&a&predictive,&but&an&historical&one&and& in&principle,&predictable&(or&at&least&determined)&trajectories,&optimal&ones&for&every&dif: ferent&object&and&by&this&it&is&an&invariant&of&the&dynamics&(relatively&to&the&reference& system)&as&we&will&see&in&detail&in&the&conclusion.&We&found&pedagogically&useful&in: troducing&this&simple&metaphorical&opposition&between&the&precise¬ion&of&optimality* (geodetics)&in&physics&and&antithetically&a&concept&such&going*wrong&in&biology,&which&
6.)Biological)unstable)stability:)extended)critical)situation This&crossing:over&between&physics&and&biology&enlightens&a&conceptual&line&focus: now& are:& constant& variability,& divergence& from& physical& optimal& paths& and& “errors”& in& : clinamen* (Lucretius,&De*Rerum*Natura,&II,&216:224&and&284:293).&The&eccentricity&of&the&theoreti: cal¬ion&of&living&beings&in&comparison&to&physical&dynamics&could&be&seen&as&a&sort& of&shift&from&the¢rality&of&mathematical&invariance,&so&relevant&in&physics,&towards& : hensive&picture&of&some&of&the&features&that&express&and&impress&a&physical*singularity* upon&living&organisms.& First&of&all,&to&understand&the&quavering&“living&state”&of&matter&(Buiatti,&2000)&and& its&processes&&one&may&introduce&the&concept&of&extended*critical*situation&(Bailly&and& Longo,&2008).&This&concept&comes&along&the&lines&of&existing&theoretical&approaches&in& : lis&and&Prigogine,&1977)&that&the&analyses&of&self:organised&systems&far&from&equilibrium& are& relevant& for& a& physical& understanding& of& organisms.&The& physical& study& of& critical&
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et*al.,&1988).&Thus&providing&the&inspiration&for&a&whole&stream&of&studies&that&can&be& summarized&in&the&idea&of&self=organized*critical*state&emerging&from&chaos,&or&“order& for&free”&(Kauffman,&1993)&and&the&various&theories&on&the&emergence&of&complex&struc: tures&from&basic&underpinnings&elements&(McLaughlin,&1992). The&concept&of&extended*criticality&proposes&a&conceptual&and,&then,&a&mathemati: cal&extension&of&these&theories.&The&point&of&departure&is&that&during&phase&transitions&a& number&of&characteristics&occurs&that&show&the&shift&from&local&to&global*–&divergence&of& appearance&of&order&...&–&in&which&the&global&structure&is&completely&involved&in&the&be: : cality&opposes&to&the¬ion&of&criticality&in&physics,&as&critical&transitions&are&mathemati: point=wise&values&of&the&control¶meters.&In&the&case&of&living&beings,& instead,&the&threshold&of&criticality&is&extended&in&time&and&is&represented&by&a&non:null& volume&in&the&space&of&all&relevant¶meters.&Without&entering&in&the&discussion&(Bailly& and&Longo,&2008Z&2010),&we&can&say&that&intuitively&this&is&due&to&the&capacity&for&adapt: ability&and&plasticity&of&living&beings,&which&resists&to&variations&(within&broad&limits)& of&the¶meters&(time,&temperature,&pressure...),&while&being&in&a&permanent&“state&or& : tions&of&the¶meters,&yet&it&is&always&in&a&critical*situation&in&relation&to&its&extended,& but&limited*existence.&Living&objects&are&always&on&a&threshold&that&changes&dynamically:& their&entire&structure&of&correlations&(coherence&structure)&is&transient&between&one&phase& and&another,&within&the&limits&of&a&structural&stability&in&relation&to&its&ecosystem&(Bailly& and&Longo,&2008Z&2010).& group.&Scale&dependence&and&scale&invariants&are&at&the&core&of&it.&Subject&to&scale&shifts,& the&focus&of&the&analysis&must&be&rearranged&continually.&We&hinted&here&an&expressive& frame&for&this&eccentric*translation : tual&dualities&is&a&way&to&give&preliminary&but&“fundamental”&level&of&intelligibility&to&the& correlations&of&physics&vs&biology.&
7.)Adopting)double)standards:)mathematical)invariants) and)variables)vs)biological)variability Mathematical&invariants&are&given&by&transformations&that&preserve&them.&Suitable& categories&of&objects&must&be&given&jointly&to&their&invariant&properties,&which&are&pre: served&through&transformation&(morphisms,&functors).&Such&properties&may&be&relative&to& measure,&topological,&algebraic…&structures.&&In&this&frame:
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1.! Objects! are! domains! of! variation# for# the# intended# mathematical# variables.# For# ex6 ample,#suppose#that#a#variable#x#is#meant#to#vary#on#a#topological#space,#D,#say,#where# a#continuous#function#h#acts,#with#co6domain#or#range#E.#Thus,#h(x)#is#in#E#and#h#gives# a#“law”,#which#is#uniform#in#x#(it#uniformly!applies#to#all#x’s#in#D).#In#physics#the#appli6 cation#is#straightforward.#Typically,#Newton’s#law#f!=!gm#applies#to!all#physical#bodies# (the!intended!domain)#and#gives#force#or#weight#as#a#function#of#mass#x,#a#property#of#a# physical#body:#!f!=!h(x)!=!gx,##where#g#is#the#gravitational#acceleration.# 2.#In#general,#in#a!physical!law#any#structuring#of#the#intended#domain,#the#distance#or# differences#of#mass,#say,#a#metric,#is#transformed#uniformly#and#effectively#by#law#as#a# mathematical#function.# 3.#The#situation#may#be#more#complex:#“We#have#to#solve#equations”,#says#Newton.#In# fact,# equations# provide# the# invariants# that# we# may# call# “objective# determinations”:# if# they#are#invariant#(stable),#for#example#by#symmetry#translations#in#time,#then#energy# conservation# derives# as# objective# determination# from# this# very# invariant# (this# is# No6 ether’s#theorem,#see#Bailly#and#Longo,#2010). Variables# in# the# equations# are# thus# uniformly# handled# as! ranging! in! the! intended! domain!of!variation,#hence#they#are#invariant,#uniformly#transformed#by#a#function,#pos6 sibly#a#solution#of#the#equation,#if!any.#In#classical#dynamics,#this#solution#usually#yields# We#can#correlate#these#two#facts:# –!genericity:#generic#objects#are#in#the#domain#of#variation#for#the#intended#mathematical# variables#(1)P –!uniformity!and!determination:#there#is#a#uniform#application#of#mathematical#function# to#all#physical#bodies#(the#intended#domain)#(2#and#3),#every#structuring#of#the#intended# domain#is#uniformly#transformed#by#a#mathematical#function. Now#we#can#make#a#comparison#with#biology.#Though#it#is#conceptually#heu6 ristic#and#interesting#to#talk#about#a#domain!of!variation!referring#to#a#living#being,# we#need#to#underline#some#fundamental#differences.#First#of#all#a#living#being#would! be!itself! in!reference#to#generic# variables,#as#it#happens#for#the#objects#of#uniform#variations.#In#fact,#regarding#the# organism,#as#we#have#seen#in#relation#to#its#autonomy#and#contingency,#its#peculiar# domain# of# variation# is# autonomous# in# itself# (closure)# and# doesn’t# refer# in# a# pre6 determinable# way# to# anything# else.#Any# variation# is# intrinsic# (internal# to# the# indi6 vidual,#yet#in#relation#to#the#external#environment)#and#correlated#to#unpredictable# variability.#There# is# no# way# to# move# aside# or# remove# this# entangled# link# between# intrinsic# variability,# unpredictability# of# trajectories# and# unstable# structural# stabil6 ity#in#biology.#And#the#problem#further#increases#when#we#move#towards#complex# entities,#such#as#humans,#where#our#epistemological#look#becomes#more#and#more# demanding. 6 al#physical6mathematical#method#in#biology.#In#fact#they#concern#many#properly!physi6
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: when,*how&and&possibly*why& this&approach&could*go*wrong,&to&use&the&expression&mentioned&above.& : main&of¯omolecules.&Then,&one&may&refer&to&the&genotype&as&a&mathematical&vari: able,&to&be&transformed&uniformly&into&a&…&phenotype,&say,&which,&if&we&translate&into& what&said&before,&would&be&the&set&of&properties&of&an&organism&given&by&a&function&h.&& This&function&h&would&provide&a&uniform&law&that&gives&the&entire&phenotype&h(x)&for&all& x.&This&mathematically&means&that&h&is& a&function&of&x independent*of*x&as&it&applies&uniformly&and& generally&to*all*x contained&in&the&chromosomes&themselves,&as&code:script&(at&once&a&program&and&an&op: erating&system&in&modern&terminology). 8.)Conclusion : genesis&as&a&uniform*function*of*DNA&(the&invariant&above)&independently*of*the*interac= tions*of*DNA*with&proteome,&the&cell&and&the&global&epigenetic&context&–&including&the& whole& organism& which& is& being& formedZ& and& concerning& heredity& and& development& in& phenomenon&“is&more&complicated”&than&the&analysis&of&a&falling&body:&it&is&conceptually& different,&as&it&requires&theoretical&extension&of¤t&theories&of&inert,&as&we&said&in&the& beginning&and&proposed&in&several&papers.&We&need&to&invent&or&“distill”&a&different&fam: ily&of&concepts,&which&may&capture&the&eccentric&physical&instability&of&organisms,&as&we& have&tried&to&underline&above&by&several¬ions&based&on&dualities&and&by&extended&criti: as&an&invariant&of&the&context&and&also:&how&many&contexts&and&interactions&should&we& ceteris*paribus&(Rosemberg,& 2001).&In&fact,&the&result&of&all&these&destabilizing&processes&is&nonetheless&an&individual,* depending&on&historicity&and&on&a&contingent&formationZ&so&it&would&need& and¬& generic¬ions,&as&both&x&and&h(x)&are&in&a&physical&analysis.&In&biology,&as&we&have&hint: ed,&it&is&the&path&(the&embryogenesis&or&the&evolutionary&path)&which&is&generic,&though& selected&by&incompatibility,&never*by*optimality.&This&stands&again&in&the&opposition&of& optimum&and&wrong.&The&more&complex&the&result&of&evolution&is,&in&Gould’s&sense&(and& not&in&a&teleological&meaning,&Gould,&1996)&the&larger&are&the&differences&in&individuals’& :
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adaptation&process,&by&human&very&plastic&brain&and&cultural&variability. Conceptually&and&theoretically&wrong&frames,&such&as&the&one&gene&one&protein&the: ory&and&the&Central&Dogma,&dominated&in&large&and&consistent&areas&of&biology&for&nearly& half&of&last¢ury.&It&determined&an&“epistemological&culture”&in&Fox&Keller&words&(Fox& h&(even&in&the&restricted&sense&of&computable,&or& x,&to&proteins,&actually&to&phenotype&(or&even&to&behav: ior,&as&claimed&by&many).&Besides&biological&inadequacy&of&this&mathematical&approach& that& we& tried& to& enlighten,& observe& that& the& belief& that& there& could& be& a& linear& process&
: plasm,&with&quasi:chaotic&enthalpic&oscillations&of¯omolecules&and&largely&statisti: (programmable)&determination&(programming&is&a&form&of&“predictable&determinism”).& «Too&often,&the&adaptationist&programme&gave&us&an&evolutionary&biology&of&parts& and& genes,& but& not& of& organisms.& It& assumed& that& all& transitions& could& occur& step& by&
Lewontin,&1979,&p.&598). In&conclusion,&biological&diversity&is&the&result&of&a&possible,&contingent,&evolution: ary&and&ontogenetic&path&mostly&failing&and&for&this&leading&to&an&individuation.&Vari= ability&must¬&be&confused&with&the&mathematical¬ion&of&variable,&which&beautifully& applies&to&the&genericity&of&physical&objects&and,&by&functions&describing&(classical)&dy: : blance,&the&meaning&and&the&domains&of&application&are&and&should&stay,&as&we&hope&to& are&a&relevant&form&of&correlation,&in&this&case,&between&physics&and&biology.
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References)) (Longo’s&papers&may&be&downloaded&from&http://www.di.ens.fr/users/longo/&) Bailly,&F.,&Longo,&G.,&2008.&Extended&Critical&Situations.*Journal*of*Biological*Systems&16(2):&309:336.&& Journal*of*Biological*Systems* 17(1):&63:96.& Bailly,&F.,&Longo,&G.,&2010.&Mathematics*and*natural*sciences.*The*physical*singularity*of*Life.&Impe: Bailly&F.,&Longo&G.,&Montévil&M.,&2011.&A*2=dimensional*Geometry*for*Biological*Time.&Invited&Lec: ture,&conference&“Biologie&e&selezioni&naturali”,&Florence,&December&4:8,&2009&(submitted&for&pub: lication,&see&&http://www.di.ens.fr/users/longo/&).& Physical*Review *Phénoménologie*et*physiologie*de*l’action.&Odile&Jacob,&Paris. Buiatti,&M.,&2000.&Lo*stato*vivente*della*materia.&Edizioni&UTET,&Torino. Fox:Keller,&E.,&2002.*Making*sense*of*life Gagliasso,& E.,& 2009.& Bauplane& e& vincoli& di& struttura:& da& ostacoli& a& strumenti.& Logiche& del& Vivente,& evoluzione,& sviluppo,& cognizione& nell’epistemologia& francese& contemporanea.& Discipline* Filoso= ,&XVIII(1). The*Spread*of*Excellence*From*Plato*to*Darwin
Proceedings*of*the*Royal*Society,&London,&Series&B,&205:& 581:598. : ary&developmental&biology.&Evolution*and*Development*9(4):393:&401. Evolution* in* four* dimensions:* genetic,* epigenetic,* behavioral,* and* symbolic*variation*in*the*history*of*life.&MIT&Press,&Cambridge,&Mass. The*origins*of*Order.&Oxford&University&Press,&Oxford. Longo,&G.,&Frezza,&G.,&2010.&Crossing:over&sul&vivente.&In:&Gagliasso,&E.,&Frezza,&G.&(eds.),&Metafore* Milano. Longo,&G.,&Montévil,&M.,&2011.&Protention*and*retention*in*biological*systems&(submitted&for&publica: tion,&see&&http://www.di.ens.fr/users/longo/&). Lucretius,&1916.&De*Rerum*Natura,&Ellery&Leonard&W.(ed.).&E.&P.&Dutton,&Boston. J.,&(eds.),&Emergence*or*reduction?*essays*on*the*prospects*of*nonreductive*physicalism.&De&Gruyter,& Self*–organization*in*nonequilibrium*systems British*Journal*for*the*Philosophy*of* Science,&52&(4):&735:760. The&predominance&of&quarter:power&scaling&in&biology.&Ecology,&18:257–282. Varela,&F.J.,&1979.&Principles*of*Biological*Autonomy
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HUMAN EVOLUTION
Bourgeois-Gironde S. Institut Jean-Nicod – Ecole Normale Supérieure Pavillon Jardin – 29, rue d’Ulm 75005 Paris, France
Cultural cortical recycling and the emergence of monetary economics
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ably plays a role in their emergence and morphogenesis. We al and neurobiological data that might support the speculation that the historical emergence and the typical neural processing KEY$WORDS:"cultural'cortical'recy, cling/'coins/'money'emergence.
similar hypothesis.
Introduction Neural plasticity probably made us adapt or even generate modern post-Neolithic cultural environments but could not be accompanied by genetic and anatomical modi-
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its alleged cortical niche.
The hypothesis of cultural cortical recycling
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reaction to orthographic stimuli. What imports to us is that those constraints determine
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Neural anchoring of material culture
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et al. attest a cultural recycling process in their case? Stout et al.
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IPS primarily subserves the perception of 3-dimensional moving objects.
It presumably became involved in tool handling across recent human evolution.
Figure 1. Basic plausible functional shift in tool use; underlined in red: intraparietal sulcus.
Figure 1. Basic plausible functional shift in tool use; indicated by the arrows: intraparietal sulcus.
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Electrum coinage may precisely be conceived as the indication that intrinsic value
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simple economic transactions.
Neural activation in the vmPFC (in darker grey) was linearly correlated to the monetary nominal format presented to participants, showing this part of the brain’s sensitivity to money illusion.
Figure 2 Figure 2.
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neural cortical map located in the ventral stream may have been selected through a long-
References tion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology Handbook of cultural psychology
cortex. PNAS From Monkey Brain to Human Brain Neuron Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control. Study. American Economic Review dence. International Economic Review Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Journal of Political Economy
incentive. Behavioral and Brain Sciences The visual brain in action Neuropsychologia roscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B currents in research on decision-making. Trends in Cognitive Sciences Quarterly Journal of Economics Journal of Economic Psychology Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Cerebral Cortex Science
Weber et al.
American Journal of Archeology PNAS
Vol. 25 - n.3-4 (199-212) - 2010
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Smorti'A. University*of*Florence
Decision(Making-Processes-and-CriteriaFor-Intuitive-and-Extensional-Reasoning In' this' article' I' try' to' show' how,' in' the' second' half' of' the'
KEY WORDS: Heuristic, Decision, Rationality
decisionJmaking'is'concerned,'a'vision'of'human'rationality'as' being'limited'by'both'cognitive'and'contextual'contraints. This'transformation'has'had'the'merit'of'stimulating'studies'on' considered'thought'activated'in'everyday,' concrete'situations,' where' the' necessity' to' survive' calls' for' making' decisions' in' uncertain'conditions.'These'studies'have'promoted'the'analysis' of'the'heuristics'which'are'used'to'face'choices,'reaching'the' conclusion'that'these'heuristics,'in'many'cases,'are'not'so'much' an' error' of' logic,' but' the' only' possible' resource' to' reach' a' decision.'Many'of'these'heuristics'follow'intuitive'logic,'rather' than'extensional,'and'aim'at'the'construction'of'scenarios'based' on'consistency'rather'than'laws'of'frequency. Here'a'research'project'is'presented'on'the'diagnostic'process'in' medicine,'involving'physicians'as'well'as'medical'students.'The' results' of' this' study' show' how' both' intuitive' and' extensional' processes'interact'in'clinical'diagnosis.''In'fact'in'their'decisions' the'participants'produce'diagnoses'that'follow'the'principle'of' consistency'rather'than'frequency.''Moreover,'when'there'is'low' frequency'and'the'illness'appears'to'be'rare'and'statistically'not' very' probable,' work' experience' allows' the' doctors,' more' so' than'the'students,'to'make'a'diagnosis.'
The-assumption-of-rationality One'day'in'1779'B.'Franklin’s'nephew'wrote'to'his'uncle'for'some'advice.'He'was'in' love'with'two'girls'and'both'seemed'equally'desirable'to'him,'so'he'did'not'know'which' of'the'two'to'become'engaged'to. His'uncle'took'a'pen'and'paper'and'responded'more'or'less'as'follows:'Dear'nephew,' If'you'are'in'doubt,'take'note'of'all'the'pros'and'cons'on'a'sheet'of'paper.'When'you'have' considered'these'for'two'or'three'days,'in'the'opposite'column'follow'a'similar'operation' to'those'of'certain'algebra'problemsI'observe,'in'each'column,'which'reasons'or'motivaJ tions'are'of'equal'weight,'one'with'one,'one'with'two,'two'with'three'and'the'like,'and,' when'you'have'cancelled'out'all'the'balances'on'both'sides,'you'will'see'in'which'column' the'surplus'advances'[….].'I'have'often'practiced'this'sort'of'moral'algebra'in'relation' to'important'circumstances'and'doubts,'and,'although'it'is'unlikely'to'be'mathematically' exact,'I'have'found'it'extremely'useful.'What’s'more,'if'you'do'not'learn'it,'I'consider' that'you'will'never'marry.'Yours'always,'your'loving'uncle'(Gigerenzer,'2007).
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We'have'begun'this'article'with'the'letter'of'B.'Franklin,'the'great'enlightenment' J spective'on'human'decisions.'In'this'paper'I'intend'to'examine'how'the'rationalist'perJ spective'and'that'which'followed'it,'that'is'the'heuristic'position,'gave'rise'to'two'differJ ent'ways'of'considering'the'cognitive'processes'at'the'root'of'the'problem'of'decisions:' an' intuitive' perspective' and' an' extensional' perspective.' I' will' therefore' present' some' research'that'regards'the'problem'of'the'decision'in'medicine'to'show'how'the'intuitive' and'extensional'processes'interact'in'clinical'diagnosis. Franklin’s'moral'algebra,'was'not'only'an'enlightenment'phenomenon'but'it'was' part'of'that'broad'and'relevant'research'tradition''based'on'the'theories'of'rational'choice.' that'of'the'economy,'politics'or'medicine,'and'psychology'but'also,'as'we'have'just'seen,' as'questions'of'the'heart.' J suppose' an' ideal' model' of' humankind.' In' Self' determination' theory' (Ryan' and' Deci,' 2000)'a'human'is'an'actor'who'acts'in'order'to'autonomously'create'his'or'her'destiny.'As' a'consequence'he'or'she'tends'toward'a'situation'in'which'he'or'she'is'likely'to'know'all' the'possible'options'to'freely'choose'the'best'one'according'to'a'perfectly'logical'process.' Since'the'decision'is'a'process'of'choice'between'a'series'of'possible'alternatives'(WilJ son'and'Keil,'1999),'the'freedom'to'choose'is'necessary'to'accomplish'the'best'option,' theory'has'lead'to'the'development'of'structural'models'which'respected'logical'criteria' and'transitivity:'how'a'person'should'behave'to'arrive'at'the'best'possible'decision.'For' example' when' decisions' are' based' on' forms' of' inductive' and' probabilistic' reasoning' they'should'respect'Bayes’'theorem.'Wachter'and'Shojania'(2004),'have'to'this'end'afJ avoid'diagnostic'errors.' Rationality-subject-to-condition The' rationality' paradigm' applied' to' the' problem' of' human' choices' has' been' the' object'of'numerous'contestations.'Herbert'Simon'(1955)'had'already'observed'that'the' J ity'rationality'appears'rather'subject'to'condition'to'numerous'cognitive'and'contextual' constraints'that'would'impede'a'person'from'optimising'his'or'her'choices'and'behaving' in'a'perfectly'rational'manner. J straints'are'of'a'cultural'nature'and'depend,'for'example,'on'the'fact'that'the'individual'
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J tion'that'leads'one'to'try'to'maximise'the'expected'utility'while'experiencing,'however,'a' consuming'doubt'(Schwartz'et*al.,'2002).'In'both'cases'too'much'choice'is'transformed' into'less'choice'(Schwartz,'2004).' To'have'taken'into'consideration'the'constraints'to'which'human'choices'are'subject' to'the'condition'has'meant'passing'from'a'normative'model'to'a'descriptive'model.'While' one,'investigating'the'manner'in'which'people'decide'and'think'on'a'daily'basis,'follows' parameters'of'a'psychological'nature.'In'this'way'the'descriptive'models'have'permitted' the'highlighting'of'all'those'cognitive'and'emotional'variables'that'characterise'the'deciJ highlighted'the'structural'limits'of'memory'and'therefore'the'negative'consequences'deJ rived'from'an'excess'of'variables'or'alternatives.'Research'conducted'in'environmental' situations'(purchases'in'a'supermarket)'has'shown'deJmotivating'outcomes'when'there' are'more'than'7'alternatives.'Seven''represents'the'number'of'information'packages'that' the'working'memory'can'manage'(see'Miller,'1956).'' * Heuristics J ly'in'situations'in'which'it'is'necessary'to'make'a'choice'quickly,'a'person'will'therefore' follow'logical'or'heuristic'shortcuts. The'study'of'heuristics'has'permitted'a'better'understanding'to'the'extent'that'human' thought'does'not'just'consist'of'the'use'of'an'extensional'and'normative'logic'but'also'of' cases'compared'to'classes'of'cases.'For'instance'in'the'heuristic'based'on'availability,' the'judgement'of'the'probability'of'an'event'is'based'on'the'ease'with'which'the'person' remembers'or'associates'the'same'event'to'other'similar'events.'In'the'illusory'correlaJ tion'(Chapman'and'Chapman,'1967I'Hamilton'and'Gifford,'1976)'when'two'events'are' not'very'frequent'and'coJoccur'they'stand'out'more,'are'strongly'noted'and'remembered,' and'the'subject'creates'a'causal'link'between'them'and'overestimates'their'frequency.'In' the'heuristic'of'representativeness'the'estimate'of'the'frequency'of'an'event'is'based'on' the'extent'to'which'the'event'is'representative'of'the'class'of'events'to'which'it'belongs.' Instead'of'being'considered'as'a'simple'member'of'the'class'and'therefore'evaluated'in' terms'of'the'probability'of'that'class'of'events,'the'event'is'judged'as'a'substitute'of'the' class'(Tversky'and'Kahneman,'1983).'Heuristics'are'at'times'founded'on'personal'beliefs' and'constructs.'In'the'observation'of'his'clinical'cases,'Vieneis'(1991)'has'demonstrated' which' the' lotto' number' that' does' not' come' up' for' several' weeks' has' more' chance' of'
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being'extracted'in'the'following'draws.'Following'this'principle,'after'having'seen'two' patients'with'abdominal'pain'and'formulating'a'diagnosis'of'hepatic'colitis'for'each'case,' a'doctor'is'predisposed'to'assess'the'next'case'that'presents'with'a'similar'pain'as'being' renal'colicI'in'fact'that'doctor'does'not'remember'that'he'has'never'come'across'more' than'two'consecutive'cases'of'hepatic'colic. The'study'of'heuristics'has'furthermore'highlighted'how'the'estimate'of'the'probJ are' represented' in' the' mind,' the' emotional' interests' that' are' provoked,' and' by' their' concreteness'and'the'capacity'for'them'to'be'imagined.'According'to'Nisbett'and'Ross' (1980)' people' overestimate' the' vivid' and' concrete' information' and' underestimate' the' et*al.,'2002).' To'this'end'Gigerenzer'(2007)'has'observed'how'a'great'part'of'our'mental'life'is' unconscious' and' based' upon' processes' that' are' extraneous' to' logic,' such' as' visceral' sensations'and'intuitions'(Gigerenzer,'2007).'Emotions'come'into'play'in'the'decision' information'that'one'has,'on'the'basis'of'which'to'make'a'choice,'information'regarding' painful'or'pleasurable'aspects'constitutes'information'of'great'relevance'(Schwartz'and' Clore,'1996).' The'important'role'of'emotions'is'emphasised'in'Kahneman'and'Tverky’s'(1979)' on'a'subjective'perception'of'the'change'brought'about'by'the'gain'or'loss.'This'perJ ception'of'the'discard'depends'on'both'the'distance'from'a'point'of'reference'(on'the' basis'of'which'the'difference'between'50'and'100'euros'is'superior'to'that'which'exists' between'950'and'1000),'and'the'fact'that'this'discard'regards'gains'or'losses.'The'losses' have'more'psychological'weight'than'the'gains:'the'pleasure'that'one'feels'in'relation'to' winning'money'is'inferior'to'the'sorry'that'one'feels'in'relation'to'the'equivalent'loss'of' money.'In'virtue'of'this'asymmetry'with'an'increase'in'the'number'of'the'alternatives'we' would'be'more'sensitive'to'the'lost'opportunities'than'to'the'pleasure'for'the'achieved' gains'(Schwartz'et*al.,'2002). In'other'words'the'classic'paradigm'of'the'theory'of'subjective'expected'utility'is' put'back'into'question:'maximising'the'pleasure'(or'positive'utility)'and'minimising'the' pain'(or'negative'utility)'do'not'have'the'same'weight:'avoiding'pain'is'more'important' than'seeking'pleasure.'These'consequences'which'are'derived'from'prospect'theory'are' choices' are' linked' to' emotionally' positive' or' negative' images.' The' human' mind' acts' quickly:'consider'the'emotional'weight'that'derives'from'past'experience'and'formulate' a'response'in'the'form'of'visceral'sensation.'True'rational'activity'would'only'happen' after'having'selected'the'alternatives'through'somatic'markers'and'discarding'those'conJ noted'by'negative'emotions.'According'to'Damasio'this'procedure'seems'to'be'linked'to' evolutionary'survival'processes'in'which'future'prospects'that'are'derived'from'present' choices'and'evaluated'in'terms'of'adaptability'have'particular'importance.
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Are-heuristics-a-logical-error? It'has'been'observed'(Kahneman,'Slovic'and'Tversky,'1982)'that'although'heuristics' render'the'decision'process'quicker,'they'also'cause'systematic'errors.'Instead'of'being' an'intuitive'process'that'is'guided'by'an'aim'that'voluntarily'selects'the'most'relevant' information,'it'is'rather'the'result'of'the'characteristics'of'the'stimulus'and'of'the'context' that'bring'the'subject'to'privilege'totally'irrelevant'information'for'the'purposes'of'the' formulation'of'the'judgement.'Heuristics'would'therefore'turn'out'to'be'procedures'that' are'not'very'valid'and'reliable'and'an'obstacle'to'the'true'inferential'or'deductive'logic' process. So,' once' the' principle' that' the' human' being' does' not' always' follow' the' rules' of' rationality'in'making'his'or'her'choices'is'accepted,'once'it'is'acknowledged'that'this' rationality'is'subject'to'condition'and'makes'use'of'logical'short'cuts,'the'idea'of'norJ mative'rationality'reappears.'This'is'because'when'a'person'does'not'use'processes'of' calculation'of'the'propositions'or'of'probability,'he'or'she'is'passive'with'respect'to'the' J sentativeness'and'distinctiveness'of'the'events,'and'incapable'of'taking'into'account'the' objective'frequency.'In'short,'his'or'her'behavior'is'the'result'of'incapacity'and'error.'It' is'supposed'for'instance'that'the'errors'that'a'doctor'makes'when'he'or'she'formulates'a' diagnosis'or'opts'for'a'therapeutic'strategy'are'likely'to'depend'on'the'fact'that'he'or'she' ignores'Bayes’'theorem.'Therefore'the'need'arises'to'educate'doctors'in'the'calculation' of'probability'as'a'means'of'preventing'clinical'errors.'' The' conviction' that' all' heuristics' are' the' fruit' of' a' failure' in' logical' reasoning' has' been'criticised'by'various'authors'(Zukier'and'Pepitone,'1984I'Zukier,'1986I'Bruner,'1986)' explore'the'non'extensional'forms'of'thought,'being'limited'to'considering'these'as'errors. The'fact'that'people'demonstrate'a'great'propensity'to'employ'forms'of'nonJextenJ sional'reasoning'in'everyday'life'was'however'already'noted'by'Tversky'and'Kahneman' (1983).'They'had'emphasised'that,'in'strident'contrast'with'extensional'logic'which'reJ quests'many'formal'conceptions'of'probability,'heuristics'based'on'representativeness' promote'the'creation'of'good'stories.'The'hypothesis'that'has'been'most'frequently'made' (Gigerenzer,'2002)'is'that'in'everyday'life'a'person'must'continue'to'make'decisions'unJ der'conditions'of'uncertainty.'This'brings'him'or'her'to'use'practical'rules'that'are'easy'to' use'to'avoid'the'long'and'complex'calculation'processes'that'are'typical'of'paradigmatic' reasoning.'Therefore'he'or'she'cannot'take'into'account'the'context'of'his'or'her'beliefs' J consider'the'presuppositions'of'his'or'her'knowledge'each'time.'In'the'observation'of' events'the'human'is'constricted'to'work'with'small'numbers'and'to'attribute'a'much'more' general'scope'to'them.'In'the'logic'of'small'numbers'he'or'she'assumes'that'the'data'are' typical'in'relation'to'his'or'her'theory.'
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While'people'can'make'the'effort'to'reason'in'terms'of'frequency'and'probability' (even'if'this'sometimes'happens'in'an'improper'manner)'with'the'big'numbers,'with'the' small'numbers'they'instead'try'to'reason'by'trying'to'build'a'consistent'model'of'the' situation.'In'this'sense'heuristics'seem'to'express'the'need'that'the'human'has'to'transJ form'the'information'he'or'she'has'in'order'to'obtain'a'persuasive'representation'of'the' external'reality,'that'is'easy'to'manipulate,'endowed'with'sense,'and'comparable'with' theory'of'the'mental'models'(1983).' Discussing'the'research'on'the'failures'of'logical'and'probabilistic'reasoning,'Zukier' (1986I'se'also'Smorti,'1994)'proposes'the'consideration'of'these'manifestations'as'the' J ing'inferences,'the'paradigmatic'way'and'the'narrative'way. When'the'individual'proceeds'in'a'paradigmatic'manner,'he'or'she'makes'use'of' categorical' hierarchies' with' inclusive,' formal,' and' abstract' relationships,' context' free' propositions,'equating'an'individual'case'with'general'categories'according'to'a'vertical' process'of'subordination'and'superordination.'He'or'she'falls'back'upon'general'laws'of' causality'in'the'general'model'of'science,'searches'for'the'similiarities'and'communaliJ J When'one'proceeds'in'a'narrative'manner,'one'articulates'temporal'sequences'of' contextJsensitive'concatenation'and'conjunction.'Therefore'a'person'goes'forward'in'a' horizontal'sense,'connecting'the'elements'in'relation'to'an'action,'to'the'intensionality,' to'the'aims,'to'the'instruments'and'to'the'reasons'according'to'a'network'that'emphasises' the'consistency'of'a'story.'The'individual'is'interested'in'reconstructing'the'relationships' between'a'part'and'the'whole'and'tries'to'put'together'the'global'picture'of'the'single' J sistency'and'persuasiveness'(see'also'Bruner,'1986I'Smorti,'1994). According'to'Zukier,'if'a'person'wishes'to'reason'according'to'canon'of'logic,'he'or' she'usually'manages'to'do'so.'While'this'sometimes'happens'it'appears'more'plausible'to' Zukier' (Zukier' &' Pepitone,' 1984I' Zukier,' 1986)' has' conducted' some' research' in' He'argues'that'when'one'must'decide'about'the'identity'of'a'person,'for'instance'a' brief'description'of'a'person'which'refers'to'an'engineer'or'a'lawyer,'like'which'occurred' information'to'clarify'his'or'her'identity,'they'place'trust'in'a'process'that'proceeds'from' high' to' low.'They' make' use' of' the' calculation' of' the' probability' based' on' what' they' J
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son,'people'rely'upon'another'thought'system'that'proceeds'from'low'to'high,'a'thought' namely'that'produces'plausible'tales,'that'are'reasonable,'even'if'not'necessarily'true.' Those'who'employ'it'try'to'construct'a'more'complete'picture'of'an'individual'case'to' put'together'the'singularity'and'the'originality'of'the'person.'With'this'objective'in'mind' they'will'collect'all'the'available'information'about'a'person'in'a'consistent'narration'or' in'a'case'history. According'to'Zukier'the'two'types'of'reasoning,'logical'and'narrative,'are'variously' employed'in'relation'to'a'multiplicity'of'variables: 1)'the'particular'viewpoint'that'the'subject'assumes'to'express'a'judgement.'Given' a'question,'(for'instance'beginning'with'a'description'of'a'person'to'decide'if'he'or'she'is' an'engineer'or'a'lawyer),'if'some'of'the'subjects'are'given'the'prompt'to'reason'as'if'they' were'scientists,'and'some'to'use'sensitivity'and'intuition'as'though'they'were'clinicians,' those'who'were'placed'in'the'clinical'positioning'were'more'likely'to'employ'a'narrative' orientation. 2)'The'type'of'formulation'of'the'problem.'If'for'example'the'problem'was'set'up' to'contain'more'elements'that'lead'to'a'stereotypical'representation'of'a'person'of'whom' one'had'to'assess'the'probability'that'he'or'she'belonged'to'a'given'category,'the'subject' tended'to'ignore'the'criterion'of'probability. 3)'The'individual'differences'in'the'orientation'of'judgement.'To'this'end'two'groups' of'students'who'were'just'about'to'graduate.'It'was'hypothesised'that'this'second'group' would'have'received'an'education'with'an'emphasis'on'diagnostic'procedures'that'could' have'sensitised'them'to'a'paradigmatic'thought'orientation.'The'results'show'that'in'the' inferential'judgements'this'group'effectively'more'frequently'employed'a'paradigmatic' thinking. The-present-research The'present'research'proposes'to'study'the'inferential'process'at'the'base'of'a'mediJ cal'decision. The' discussion' up' until' now' has' emphasised' how' the' decision,' and' in' particular' the'diagnostic'decision,'is'likely'to'be'guided'by'both'extensional'type'criteria'based'on' frequency'and'by'intuitive'type'criteria'based'on'consistency.'We'therefore'wanted'to' assess'whether:' 1)'participants'mainly'based'the'diagnostic'decision'on'the'consistency'of'the'clinical' data'or'on'data'about'the'diffusion'of'the'illness.'In'particular,'we'wanted'to'examine'how' these'two'variables'interacted'with'each'other. Since' there' is' evidence' (Zukier,' 1986)' that' the' diagnostic' judgement' is' likely' to' depend'on'the'level'of'clinical'experience'we'wanted'to'verify'whether:' 2)'the'level'of'clinical'experience'lead'to'greater'use'of'criteria'based'on'extensionality.
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The' investigation' requested' the' voluntary' participation' of' 103' subjects' including' doctors' and' medical' students.' Students' at' the' university' department' of' the' faculty' of' medicine'in'Pisa'were'contacted'in'the'break'between'the'academic'and'hospital'comJ mitments.'The'doctors'involved'were'all'generic'doctors'who'worked'in'the'clinic.'This' J ent'specialisations.'In'total'participants'comprised'48'females'and'55'males'with'a'mean' Faculty'of'Medicine'(mean'age'='22.8I'S.D.'='0.9)I'38'were'sixthJyear'students'(mean' age'='25.07I'S.D.'='1.7)I'and'30'were'doctors'(mean'age'='37.8I'S.D.'='9.27). Participants' responded' anonymously' to' four' clinical' scenarios' obtained' from' the' different'combinations'of'the'two'chosen'variables.'That'is,'consistency'(high'or'low)' and' diffusion' (high' or' low).' By' consistency' we' meant' the' degree' to' which' the' cliniJ cal' information' was' in' agreement' to' be' able' to' suggest' a' possible' diagnostic' picture.' Consistency'was'adopted'as'an'indicator'of'the'intuitive'quality'of'the'case,'such'that'it' constituted'the'representation'of'a'coherent'story.'By'diffusion'we'meant'the'incidence' of'the'illness'in'the'region'in'which'the'subject'worked'in'relation'to'the'incidence'at' the'national'level.'Each'scenario'comprised'two'clinical'cases'which'differed'in'terms' of'seriousness.'The'scenarios'comprised'brief'clinical'descriptions'and'were'constituted' as'follows: –'SCENARIO'A'(JJ)'characterised'by'low'consistency'and'low'diffusion.'Example: In'the'clinic'of'doctor'Y,'doctor'of'general'medicine,'Mr'Z,'male'aged'67,'former'lawyer,' now'retired,'presents'himself.'Mr'Z'complains'of'an'intense'itch'that'he'has'had'for'about' a' week.' During' the' objective' examination,' the' doctor' notes' numerous,' recent' lesions' from'scratching'on'the'inguen,'armpit,'and'buttocks.'Further'examination'of'the'zones'of' interest'shows'the'presence'of'papule'–'scabs'with'probable'bacterial'infection,'associJ ated'with'bilateral'inguen'lymphoadenopathy. Knowing'that'in'the'region'of'residence'of'the'patient'the'incidence'of'scabies'is'1:2' compared'to'the'national'average,'if'you'were'in'doctor'Y’s'shoes'what'percentage'would' you'give'to'Mr.'Z'of'being'affected'by'scabies? –'SCENARIO'B'(+J)'characterised'by'high'consistency'and'low'diffusion.'Example: In'the'rooms'of'doctor'Y,'doctor'of'general'medicine,'Mr'G'presents'himself,'a'55JyearJ old'man,'evidently'overweight,'a'non'smoker,'and'not'a'high'blood'pressure'sufferer.' He'has'high'cholesterol'that'has'been'under'pharmaceutical'treatment'for'about'5'years.' The'patient'complains'of'a'violent'pain'in'the'big'toe'of'his'right'foot'since'the'previJ ous'evening.'The'pain'persisted'for'the'entire'night'without'any'change,'preventing'the' patient'from'proper'rest.'During'the'objective'examination'the'toe'appears'to'be'painful,' hot,'and'swollen. An'observational'study'conducted'recently'in'the'hospital'of'Mr'G’s'city,'has'shown'that'
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average If'you'were'in'the'shoes'of'doctor'Y,'what'probability'would'you'give'patient'G'of'being' affected'by'gouty'arthritis? –'SCENARIO'C'(++)'characterised'by'high'consistency'and'high'diffusion.'Example: On'January'15,'in'the'rooms'of'doctor'Y,'doctor'of'general'medicine,'a'young'28JyearJold' woman'presents'herself'with'a'temperature'of'38'degrees'Celsius.'The'patient'looks'pale' and'fatigued'and'reports'that'she'has'had'diarrhoea'for'two'days'associated'with'wide' The'Higher'Health'Institute'has'hypothesised'that'in'the'20J'to'40JyearJold'age'group'the' If'you'were'in'the'shoes'of'Doctor'Y'what'probability'would'you'assign'the'young'patient' –'SCENARIO'D'(J+)'characterised'by'low'consistency'and'high'diffusion.'Example: In'the'early'afternoon'in'the'rooms'of'Doctor'Y,'doctor'of'general'medicine,'patient'X' presents' himself,' a' 63JyearJold' male,' married' with' three' children,' a' non' smoker,' and' diabetic'for'about'10'years,'with'glycaemic'levels'well'under'control.'He'is'not'a'high' blood'pressure'sufferer'and'does'not'have'high'cholesterol'or'a'family'history'of'cardioJ vascular'disease. The'patient'reported'that'upon'waking'he'had'noticed'the'appearance'of'a'constant,' nonJirradiated'pain'in'the'right'shoulder'which'was'not'accentuated'by'movement,'and' which' disappeared' after' around' half' an' hour' without' taking' any' analgesics.' The' paJ tient'reported'that'the'pain'represented'itself'in'the'same'manner,'but'with'less'intensity,' straight'after'lunch'and'it'regressed'after'around'15'minutes. An'observational'study'conducted'in'the'city'where'doctor'Y'practices'has'shown'a' prevalence'of'ischemic'heart'disease'in'male'subjects'over'sixty'which'is'twice'as'high' as'the'national'average. If'you'were'in'the'shoes'of'Doctor'Y,'what'probability'would'you'assign'to'the'paJ tient'of'being'affected'by'ischemic'heart'disease?'1 The'clinical'cases'were'preJemptively'put'before'the'judgement'of'10'hospital'docJ tors'asking'them'for'an'evaluation'of'the'stories'in'terms'of'consistency'(high'or'low)'and' diffusion'(high'or'low).'100%'agreement'was'reached. The' responses' of' the' participants' to' the' two' clinical' cases' representative' of' each' scenario'were'summed'together'and'the'average'of'these'was'calculated.
1 I thank Dr. Francesco Cappelli for having contributed to the construction of the scenarios.
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Results Table'1'presents'the'results'related'to'the''likelihood'that'the'participants'assigned' to'the'diagnosis'suggested'by'the'scenario.'The'results'permit'comparisons'between'the' four'scenarios'and'assessment'of'the'differences'within'the'subgroups. Table'1.'Estimate'of'the'subjective'probability'that'the'suggested'diagnosis'is'the'right'one.'Results'for' the'total'sample'and'for'the'three'subgroups.'
SCENARIO A J'J'
B +'J'
C +'+'
D J'+'
G'1 G'2 G'3 Total G'1 G'2 G'3 Total G'1 G'2 G'3 Total G'1 G'2 G'3 Total
ESTIMATE' 23.55 33.85 60.05 35.2 59.05 63.35 88.09 66.8 66.81 65.40 75.00 68 30.71 36.21 39.87 38.1
'STANDARD' DEVIATION 24.15 28.34 38.18 31.6 26.25 31.17 9.70 26.8 27.99 27.66 31.06 28,2 25.52 28.12 29.32 28.3
F
F''=5.7**
F''=4.7**
F''=.43
F''=3.12*
+J'='High'consistency,'low'frequency ++'='High'consistency,'low'frequency G1'='fourth'year'studentsI' G2'='sixth'year'studentsI' G3'='doctors *p'
