Prague Castle

Cover Front Representation of a king, fragment of a stone panel, Baptistery of Split Cathedral (photo: N. Belošević) Representation of a warrior, fragment of the transenna from the Church of St Mary at Crkvina in Biskupija, MHAS (photo: Z. Alajbeg) Back Detail from the fol. 214v, Egmont Gospel Book, KB 76 F1 (© the Hague, Koninklijke Bibliotheek)

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Silver censer from Cetina near Vrlika, MHAS (photo: Z. Alajbeg)

Swords, Crowns, Censers and Books Francia Media - Cradles of European Culture Edited by

Marina Vicelja-Matijašić

Center for Iconographic Studies Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences – University of Rijeka Rijeka, 2015

Publisher Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka For the publisher Ines Srdoč Konestra Editor Marina Vicelja-Matijašić Editorial assistant Nikolina Belošević

Editorial and Advisory Board Peter Bisták (Bratislava) Koos Bosma (Amsterdam) † Dirk Calebaut (Ename) André Constant (Aix-en-Provence) Maria Pia Guermandi (Bologna) Isabel Kappesser (Frankfurt) Špela Karo (Ljubljana) Jana Maříková-Kubková (Prag) Patrick Monsieur (Ename) Hettie Peterse (Nijmegen) Language editor Martin Mayhew Cover Petar Popić Mileusić Graphic design and text preparation Sanja Jovanović (University of Rijeka) K&K, Zagreb Sizis d.o.o., Zagreb Print Denona, d.o.o. Zagreb ©2015 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka, Croatia

ISBN 978-953-7975-32-6 University of Rijeka Library Cataloging Number (CIP): 130816029 UDK: 902/904(4)”04/14”(082) * 7(4)”04/14”(091)(082)

Table of Contents Acknowledgements

6

Marina Vicelja-Matijašić

Foreword

7

Dirk Callebaut

Francia Media - Uncovering an Instructive Past for Europe

9

Rosamond McKitterick

Francia Media - Introduction

21

Bert Thissen The Royal Palace of Nijmegen (ca. 750-1247)

53

Dirk Callebaut

The Trifunctionality of an Ottonian Border Site The Margravial Centre of Ename

93

Patrick Monsieur

The Gallo-Roman and Early Mediaeval Settlement of Feliciacum/Velzeke in Northern Gaul A Survey of Archaeological Sources on Transition, Continuity and Discontinuity within the Roman and Germanic Worlds

141

Isabel Kappesser Nina Schücker

Palace - Ruins - Monument Charlemagne’s Palatium in Ingelheim

167

Jana Maříková-Kubková Katarína Mašterová Katarína Válová

Prague Castle

187

Jana Maříková-Kubková Peter Baxa Peter Bisták Zuzana Borzová

Church of San George in Kostoľany pod Tribečom

213

Špela Karo Dimitrij Mlekuž

The Archaeological Image of the Land along the Upper Sava River in the Late Antique and Early Medieval Period A View in Space

249

Maria Pia Guermandi

Ravenna - European Capital A Bridge in Time and Space

273

Danko Dujmović

An Overview of Historical and Archaeological Research of the Early Medieval Period in Croatia

297

Maja Petrinec Ante Jurčević

Crkvina - Biskupija Insights into the Chronology of the Site from 8th to 15th Century

327

André Constant Jean-Antoine Segura Marie Valenciano

Hilltop Settlement Dynamics in Provence between 5th and 9th Centuries Results and Research Prospectives

373

Vladimir P. Goss

Francia Media and the Southeast of Europe Dossier “Visual Arts” - Westwork and Rural Romanesque

403

Jan Kolen Linde Egberts

Rebuilding on Ruins Transformation of Legacies in Europe

417

Acknowledgments We would like to thank individuals and institutions who contributed to the realisation of this publication: Vera Ameels, Koen De Groote, Hans Denis, Nancy Lemay, Jan Moens - Flanders Heritage Agency, Belgium Maurice Cornelis, Marie-Claire Van der Donckt - Provinciaal Archeologisch Museum (PAN), Ename, Belgium Patrick De Jaegher, Belgium Louise Fredericq, Ename Expertisecentrum voor Erfgoedontsluiting, Belgium Daniel Pletinkcx, Visual Dimension bvba, Belgium Eva Roels, Tourist Office Oudenaarde, Belgium Zoran Alajbeg, Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments, Split, Croatia Petra Predoević Zadković, Department of History of Art, University of Rijeka, Croatia Jacqueline Balen, Igor Krajcar - Archaeological Museum, Zagreb, Croatia Institute of Archaeology of the CAS, Prague, v.v.i., Prague castle, Czech Republic Jan Gloc and Martin Frouz, Czech Republic (for sharing copyrights) Iva Herichová, Czech Republic (for sharing the results of her geological survey of the Prague Castle promontory) Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LA3M UMR 7298, Aix-en Provence, France Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, CNRS, CRAHAM UMR 6273, Caen, France Heiko Schlombach, Solstice scop Sarl, France (translator) Nicola-Jane Stevenson, Translation Ninja, France (translator) Holger Grewe and Katharina Ferch, Forschungsstelle Kaiserpfalz Ingelheim, Germany Arjan den Braven, Joep Hendriks, Rob Mols, Hettie Peterse, Katja Zee, Municipality of Nijmegen (Gemeente Nijmegen), Netherlands Centre for Global Heritage and Development, Leiden University, Netherlands Research Institute CLUE+, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands Roman Catholic Parish Office, Ladice, Slovakia Tomas Mařik, Slovakia (translator) Timotej Knific, Narodni muzej Slovenije, Ljubljana, Slovenia Tomaž Lauko, Narodni muzej Slovenije, Ljubljana, Slovenia (photographer) Jože Hanc, Ljubljana (photographer) Meta Osredkar, Ljubljana (translator)

Foreword Swords, Crowns, Censers and Books is the product of the five year project Francia Media – Cradles of European Culture which has brought together scholars, researchers and experts in various fields of humanities in reference to the specific period of early medieval European past. On the foundation of the Carolingian world, which provided the bedrock for the subsequent development of medieval European culture, Francia Media prospered as a political realm that connected the North Sea and Mediterranean, cultivating its diversities and struggling and manoeuvring through a complex political narrative. Its power was operated through royal and aristocratic courts, the military and church who contributed and assured the appearance and specific formation of centres of culture, learning and artistic patronage. The deliberate channelling of resources towards education in the service of the Christian faith was a fundamental element in the formation of Europe and European cultural identity. Fragments of this powerful and fertile social and cultural realm are scattered throughout Europe and act as reminders of its great formative age. In the publication authors present ten archaeological sites in nine European countries: the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Italy and France. The conceptual framework presumed the representation of heritage from the perspective of a crossroads of different backgrounds, traditions, established practices and experience within the heritage route that the sites formed. The articles discuss various issues and problems such as the relationship between centre and province, the question of borders, elites and social classes, written and other historical sources, reconstructing the past, conservation, protection and interpretation of heritage etc. The sites possess distinct importance both for national histories and the overall chronology of the early Middle Ages. The texts also highlight the importance of learning about Europe’s cultural past in contemporary society as a means for supporting the processes of identity creation, transcultural dialogue and regenerating and re-establishing values and integrity. Each partner has demonstrated both good practice and problems within the wider approach to the particular archaeological site or specific set of subjects. The work on the project mobilised not only the partners’ institutions but other individuals and associations in promoting the importance of the heritage of the early Middle Ages and thus generating the idea of a strong platform that will continue building bridges between the past and present. Marina Vicelja-Matijašić

Prague Castle Jana Maříková-Kubková Katarína Mašterová Katarína Válová

Prague Castle offers a unique example of continuous settlement and uninterrupted human activity for more than a thousand years. It became the seat of the secular as well as sacral administration of the Přemyslid Princedom and of all later Central European states with Prague as their capital as well.



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Reconstructing the landscape and original physical relief of the Hradčany promontory

The character of the Hradčany promontory and the extent to which it was settled was determined primarily by its natural conditions. The original lay of the land was completely unsuitable for stable settlement. The narrow, stretched and arched ridge was divided by a ravine into two parts, with bedrock protruding at the summit, and the slopes too were carved by ravines (fig. 1).1 The subsoil of the site was formed during the Old Palaeozoic Era and consists of highly resistant quartzite, greywacke and sandstone interspersed with layers of slate. Its basic morphology was shaped in the Triassic and Quaternary periods by weathering between the Vltava River and its left-bank tributaries, the streams Malostranský potok (dry today) and the Brusnice.2 The area’s geomorphological inhospitality was compensated by its strategic location within the Prague Basin: its proximity to the Vltava River at the intersection of various trade routes, commanding views and last but not least the presence of water resources. The natural water resources consisted of springs with groundwater on the slopes of the promontory and contributed essentially to the attractiveness of this location. However, vast interventions into the morphology of the terrain had to be taken into account. The rocky summit seems to have been bare and arid (a link to the possible etymology of the Slavonic local name “Praha” has been proposed). The southern flank was covered with shrubs; the northern one was dominated by a forest of beeches, furs, and occasionally yews.3 The vicinity of the castle provided mineral resources as well. The most important were the iron ores on the southern slope of the spur and limestone from the nearby Petřín Hill, which was considered a highly desirable building material. Besides these, river boulders (for paving), river sand (an ingredient for plaster) and timber from the Deer Moat were available. Loess from Prague Castle and its surroundings was later to serve as raw material for brickmaking.4



Settlement before 850

The Prague Castle area offers a unique example of continuous settlement from prehistory and uninterrupted human activity from the early Middle Ages when the settlement was subjugated to the natural configuration of the terrain. The builders were forced to gradually lower and level the terrain, which seems to be the reason for the rarity of prehistoric finds in this locality. Deposits, today amounting to a thickness of

more than 16 m, began to cover the slopes.5 The first evidence of human presence is concentrated in the north-western foreground of Prague Castle. The oldest find is the tip of an adult mammoth’s tusk, discovered in the Pleistocene loess sediments in the grounds of the Riding School in 2004 (from 40,000-26,000 BC).6 The first settlement in this area dates back to the Late Stone Age, i.e. to the Neolithic Period (6,000-4,000 BC), and belonged to the Linear Pottery Culture, to which five pits in the Lumbe Garden have been attributed. Apart from these finds, the Corded Ware and Únětice Cultures are signified by two cemeteries discovered during the 1996 excavation campaign.7 Until the 1980s, it was believed that the area of the future Přemyslid Castle itself had not been inhabited before the early Middle Ages. However, older finds began to be found in secondary deposits, especially on the ramparts, and in 1987, the first ceramic finds were made in situ. Today a multitude of finds attests to an Eneolithic (4,000 BC) and a Late Bronze Age settlement of the so-called Knovíz Culture (1,200-1,000 BC).8 The Roman Period is evidenced by an out of context fibula and a fragment of Roman terra sigillata with a drilled hole that could have been worn perhaps by one of the builders of the early medieval fortification.9



History of 850-1050

Written sources do not explicitly record Prague (especially the Lesser Town of Prague) and Prague Castle before the end of the 9th century. However, we are convinced that we have to deal with one of the central seats of the Bohemians documented in earlier Frankish chronicles. The first such note in the Annals of Fulda, dated January 845, refers to the adoption of Christianity. At that time, fourteen Bohemian nobles arrived with their retinues in Regensburg, where they asked Louis the German to be baptised. The next known evidence refers to the christening of Duke Bořivoj sometime before 885 by Bishop Methodius in Moravia. Both these acts can be understood in the context of their time as political.10 Apart from Prague, two other sites played a major role in the early history of the duchy, namely Levý Hradec and Budeč (fig. 2).11 In the second half of the 9th century, Prague Castle was supposedly a seat of the Bohemians and fulfilled administrative as well as symbolic functions. According to the traditional interpretation, after his baptism in Moravia, Bořivoj intended to return to his seat at Levý Hradec, but ended up in a battle for Prague and had the Church of the Virgin Mary (fig. 3) built, which was the first church in the area of Prague Castle and only the second of whole Bohemia, founded near its future acropolis.12 Bořivoj’s heirs began to settle down in the area of Prague Castle. Contacts with Moravia broke off in 895 and the Bohemians sought help from King Arnulf in Regensburg. Bořivoj’s elder son Spytihněv contributed to the establishment of an archpresbyterate, which fell under the Diocese of Regensburg.13 His younger brother

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1. Reconstruction of the original physical geography of Prague Castle; 1 - west part of the promontory; 2 - east part of the promontory; 3 - so-called transversal ravine (© IACAS, Prague Castle)

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2. Fortified settlements in Central Bohemia at the end of 9th and beginning of 10th c. (after J. Sláma, 1988; © IACAS, Prague Castle)

3. View of the relics of the Church of the Virgin Mary at the time of its discovery, painted by Vojtěch Kubašta, 1950 (© IACAS, Prague Castle)

4. St George’s Basilica, exterior; reconstructed at the end of 19th c. and at the beginning of 20th c. (© IACAS, Prague Castle)

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Vratislav was already considering establishing an independent Diocese in Prague. The construction of St George’s Basilica, the second oldest church within Prague Castle, and the Benedictine Convent of St George may be linked to this intention (fig. 4).14 In connection with the political developments within the Frankish Empire the political orientation changed, and St Wenceslas was forced to subjugate himself to the Frankish King Henry. Evidence of this can be seen as well in the consecration of another church in the area of Prague Castle, to Vitus, the Saxon patron saint (fig. 5).15 Power consolidated, the duchy grew, and finally in 973,16 under the rule of Boleslav II, a bishopric was established. By that time, the Přemyslids had become an important political factor of Central Europe. However, after the death of Duke Boleslav II in 999, a major crisis emerged.17 Even Boleslav’s widow, the former Frankish queen Emma18 tried to contribute to its solution.19 The issue was only definitively solved by the presence of a strong and self-confident ruler, such as Břetislav I after 1034.20



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Archaeological evidence from 850-1050

Conclusive archaeological evidence of a stable settlement during the whole 9th century is still missing on the site. However, a dense settlement is attested in the neighbouring area of today’s Hradčany and the Lesser Town (fig. 6).21 These were not only settled areas but also important manufacturing and trade centres that were dispersed over the dominant hill of today’s Prague Castle.22 By that time, it was apparently playing a symbolic role, which is indicated by the find of a warrior’s grave (fig. 7). This burial of an important male was discovered in the 1920s, at the spot of the obelisk installed by architect Josip Plečnik in the Third Courtyard. The high social rank can be deduced from the rich grave goods: an iron sword, axe, dagger, knife and razor, sharpening steel and wooden bucket are unique among the Prague graves of this time. The grave belonged to a cemetery, most part of which was irretrievably destroyed by modern construction. The other preserved 16 graves, however, enable an appropriate view of the burial rite in the 9th and 10th centuries with minimal or completely missing equipment. The warrior’s grave was situated outside the area of the church buildings of the castle. This fact contributes to a dating of the mid-9th century, in pre-Přemyslid times.23 The mythical Žiži Mound and the stone throne at the top of the castle’s promontory, where the dukes were inaugurated, give an idea of its primarily spiritual aspect. The remains of the Church of the Virgin Mary from the 9th century, the first church at this site,24 support this theory. According to historical sources the church was erected around 885. It was discovered as situated on a small projection of the northern slope of the promontory, and we can assume that a still undiscovered settlement complex was situated in its neighbourhood. The oldest shape of the church can be estimated on grounds of the found remains as being a single-aisled, longitudinal building with a rectangular presbytery and large stone tomb containing a later interment of a man and a woman,

identified as Duke Spytihněv I (died 915) and his wife. The currently visible masonry belongs to an 11th century reconstruction. The surroundings of the church served for burials. The church burned down in the second half of the 13th century.25 Other architectural remains of church architecture stem from the first half of the th 10 century. Vast building projects were the construction of St George’s Basilica26 and the foundation of St Vitus’ rotunda (fig. 8).27 Both churches defined the central part of the castle’s promontory, part of which was to become the duke’s seat. St George’s Basilica was founded by Duke Vratislav I (915-921) and consecrated during the reign of Wenceslas in 925. At this time, the body of St Ludmila was transferred to this church. The new church was to fulfil the representative functions of the Přemyslid dukes and served as their burial place. The oldest building phase from the 10th century is represented by a triple-aisled basilica, the dimensions of which do not differ widely from the currently visible state, a modern reconstruction of the 12th century basilica.28 As an annex to St George’s Basilica, the Benedictine Convent of St George was founded later in 976 as the very first monastery in Bohemia. Mlada, the sister of Duke Boleslav II had gone to Rome, where she, among others, negotiated the foundation of the Prague diocese. In Rome she took the name Maria, and after her return, she became the convent’s first abbess. At the time of their foundation, the buildings seem to have been of wood. A part of the area was a small Chapel of the Virgin Mary together with the grave of an unknown young woman, furnished with a memoria. The second important abbess was Berta, who had the convent and basilica rebuilt after a fire in 1142. From this time stem the oldest stone relicts discovered during the excavations.29 However, before the foundation of St George’s Convent, St Vitus’ Rotunda was founded as the third church within Prague Castle by Duke Wenceslas in 929. The original building consisted of a circular nave with one apse oriented to the east and contained the altar of St Vitus. Wenceslas’ body was transferred here from Stará Boleslav shortly after his death (929/935). A second, southern, apse with St Wenceslas’ Chapel was added, to house his grave. A third apse was built into the northern wall in the 11th century. From written sources we know of the rich decoration of the rotunda’s interior. At the place of the St Vitus’ Rotunda, following Rhineland models, a triple-aisled church with two choirs and a transept was erected in 1060 and consecrated in 1097.30 The latest results of archaeological research prove the existence of the first ducal palace at today’s St George’s Square between the churches of St George and St Vitus. According to modest archaeological finds and analogies, this was a plastered wooden building. Written records testify to an upper floor with a hall, mentioned in connection with Břetislav I, who was enthroned in 1035. Respecting the expansion of the church area of St Vitus and St George, the palace moved towards the southern slope. We are well informed about its Romanesque stone phase from 1135, which is preserved beneath today’s Old Royal Palace.31

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5. Reconstruction of St Vitus’ Rotunda in 10th c.; highlighted ground plans of the later Romanesque basilica, capitular cloister and Gothic Cathedral (© IACAS, Prague Castle)

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6. Extent of Přemyslid Prague Castle in the 10th c.; fortification walls of the suburbium in the south, today Malá Strana - Lesser Town (after J. HAVRDA and M. TRYML, 2013)

7. “Warrior’s grave”, 9th c., exhibit at “The Story of Prague Castle” (photo: J. Gloc)

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8. Map of reconstruction of physical geography of Prague Castle; 1 - Church of Virgin Mary; 2 - St Vitus’ Rotunda; 3 - St George’s Basilica; 4 - so-called St Wenceslas’ Well; 5 - Romanesque wall (after 1135); 6 - ravine on the Third Courtyard (© IACAS)

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The Přemyslid dukes and the national patron saints were buried in a number of places within the castle. While we do not know the location of the grave of the first Přemyslid Duke Bořivoj, the corpse of his wife Ludmila, who was considered a martyr, was transferred to the newly-built St George’s Basilica in 925. The burial vault in the Church of the Virgin Mary was conceived as the tomb of Bořivoj’s son Spytihněv I and his wife. The most important Bohemian saint became Duke Wenceslas, who was murdered by his brother Boleslav I at the nearby castle of Stará Boleslav in 929/935. Shortly after, his corpse was brought to Prague Castle and buried in the new apse of St Vitus’ Rotunda. Wenceslas was venerated out of political reasons; the Frankish Emperor Otto II had a legend about his life written in 980 by Bishop Gumpold of Mantua. Another crucial saint was Bishop VojtěchAdalbert of the Slavník family, who was murdered in Prussia in 997 and venerated as a saint. Today, his relics are kept at St Vitus’ Cathedral, successor to the former rotunda.32 Since the 10th century, St George’s Basilica and afterwards the Rotunda and Basilica of St Vitus were the burial place of the Bohemian dukes. At the time of the construction of the cathedral, the buried dukes were transferred to the choir chapels and entombed in the new Gothic limestone vaults created by the workshop of Peter Parler. At St Vitus’ Church, dignitaries working at Prague Castle were buried as well.33 The cemeteries around the churches of St Mary, St Vitus and perhaps St George as well all originate in the 10th century. Other burial grounds from the 10th century came to light at the north-western foreground of Prague Castle: in the Royal Garden, around the Riding School, and in the Lumbe Garden. Although these are not church cemeteries, the grave finds are remarkably rich and unique at this site.34 The archaeological excavations have also uncovered the remains of domestic architecture in the area of Prague Castle. The oldest features from the period between the 10th and 11th centuries belong to log buildings, simple single-room houses with rectangular ground plans. They mainly had packed earth floors, only exceptionally covered with timber, flat stones, or pebbles. Their equipment seems to have been modest; we have found traces of fireplaces for cooking, wooden chests for valuables, and the post pits of the furniture. At some places, fences between the individual plots and fragments of a wooden road have been preserved. The area was built up rather densely; however, these buildings are attested only in a few places.35 The layout of Prague Castle has preserved the early medieval road scheme. The main way led south of the promontory’s ridge from east to west, it is attested in a number of layers, beginning with the 10th century (fig. 9). It was either covered with simple small pebbles or wooden boards. The original main gate, non-existent today, was situated in the south and connected the castle with the Lesser Town. On the eastern side, at the place of the later Black Tower, there was an entrance for pedestrians. The northwest part was accessed by the third gate, connecting the territory of the castle with the Hradčany foreground.36

The whole area would have been protected by a fortification, which was gradually renovated and improved. The first attested fortification was a simple moat dug in the 9th century. At the beginning of the 10th century, Spytihněv I had a wood and clay wall built around the castle, which became the subject of several alterations during the following two centuries, especially in view of the southward expansion of the area.37 The archaeological finds have changed the interpretation of Prague Castle profoundly. Apart from a spiritual level, we must also count the earthly power. During the 10th century, the site became a representative seat of the secular as well as ecclesiastical power within in the Přemyslid domain. A bishopric was installed, a bishop’s palace38 erected and the chapter founded.39 All these events shaped the complex of church buildings and pushed the duke’s palace (fig. 10) to the southern edge of the promontory.



Art and architecture from 850-1050

Ecclesiastical and secular institutions, installed at the castle, turned it into a major centre of the arts for Central Europe. The development of the castle’s settlement structure was essentially influenced by its rugged terrain. Based on the known archaeological and written sources, we can clearly detect a pre-Christian layer in the urban development beginning as early as the 9th century, a layer of the foundations of church architecture and a layer of the castle becoming a fortified administrative centre. We may consider the eastern part of the ridge as the urban seed of the Přemyslid Castle, which from the first half of the 10th century contained the stone churches of St George and St Vitus and most probably the first ducal palace as well. From the 9th century a wood and clay wall with a number of gates encircled the whole area, in the 12th century it was replaced by a stone wall.40 Today’s structuring of Prague Castle mainly reflects the early modern state of the development. The oldest preserved stone dwellings are only Romanesque; until then they were, with the exception of the stone elements of the fortification wall, made of wood. The latest investigations have shown that the promontory was settled from the west; whatt today appears as the kernel of the castle was occupied only later, mainly with church buildings from the later building phase. Gradually, three churches were erected: St Mary’s, St George’s and St Vitus’; adjacent to St Vitus’ the bishopric was founded in 973/974 and at St George’s the first Benedictine convent within Bohemia. Somewhat later, the ducal palace developed on the south slope, and the division of the castle into an ecclesiastical north part and a secular south part peaked in the 12th century. The first known churches belong to the basic architectural types of the period. The Church of the Virgin Mary had one nave and a rectangular apse, St George’s is being reconstructed as a three-aisled basilica and St Vitus’ was originally built as a rotunda with a single apse. The original churches can be studied from the fragmentary remains of their floor plans only.41

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The fragments ascribed to St Mary’s Church, the oldest church in Prague Castle, are hidden under later building phases. Among them we can list a part of the apse, the exterior of the north-east nave corner and, as a prominent element in its interior, a large aboveground tomb. The latest surveys have shown that this was a burial chapel adjacent to a main church that remains unknown.42 After 900 a later grave was inserted into the tomb, which is being connected with Duke Spytihěv I (died c. 915) and his wife. The second half of the 11th century was marked with the building activities of the recently reformed St Vitus Chapter; in this context, in the place of the former burial chapter a new Romanesque church with semi-circular apse was built. The second church known from written sources was built by Duke Vratislav (begun c. 915-921) on the far eastern side of the castle’s promontory, by this time already in the centre of a fortified hillfort and not as in the case of St Mary’s at a gate on its perimeter. Today’s (massively reconstructed) structure of St George’s stems from the High Romanesque period, and roughly corresponds to the reconstruction after a fire in 1142. At that time, the walled monasterial buildings also developed which until then were made only of wood. The structure of today’s Romanesque basilica copies the older ground plan and most probably continues the stone basilica from the end of the 10th century. This was built of ashlars and included architectural decoration of red sandstone. It had at least one west crypt, the east end of which is unknown today. In the axis of this building a cross-shaped walled structure was situated, probably a relic shrine. The oldest appearance of this church from the beginning of the 10th century is unknown today; it would, however, have been a basilica-type building. In 929 Duke Wenceslas founded the third church, the Rotunda of St Vitus. The oldest phase consisted of a single circular nave and an apse and was built of quarry stones and mortar. In the 10th and 11th centuries an additional two apses were added. The reconstruction of the south apse already used smaller ashlars, and the outer face of the building was decorated with lesenes. The 11th-century church was plastered inside and the floor was decorated with a mosaic of colourful pebbles. The oldest preserved stone buildings at Prague Castle are, with the only exception of the stone face of the fortification wall, the churches. From the other 9th-11th-century buildings only occasionally fragments of simple wooden dwellings have been preserved.



Artistic production 850-1050

Arts and crafts in the 9th to 11th-century Prague Castle were inspired by imported goods, required for church institutions; only later, did works of art for the altar decoration, liturgy, and vestments begin to be made at the site itself. The level of local arts and crafts, whose products were intended mainly for the lay inhabitants of the castle, can be estimated from the jewellery found during the excavation of the cemetery in Lumbe Garden (figs. 11, 12).43 The richest of all the discovered cemeteries yielded luxurious

9. Timber-lined road from the Early Middle Ages leading to the main western entrance of the castle, uncovered in the Third Courtyard in 1927 (© IACAS)

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10. Old Royal Palace, vaulted hall under today´s Vladislav Hall, Romanesque period (photo: J. Gloc)

11. Golden earring decorated with schematic mouse heads, found in a grave of 10th c., Lumbe Garden (© IACAS; photo: J. Gloc)

items of foreign and local manufacture. The most precious of them are the products of goldsmiths, partially from workshops on the territory of the Moravian Empire and partially from a workshop operating throughout the entire 10th century in the style of Moravia but unconnected to Moravian development. The silver and gold jewellery consists of intricate shapes created in complicated jeweller’s techniques (basket-, drum-shaped earrings, kaptorga cases, chains, jewels decorated with filigree and granulation, glass or semi-precious stones) and in the most complicated cases their production, as proven by experimental replication, took up to 123 hours of work. The preserved number of jewels from the cemetery points to the strong economic background of the buried. Rare imports count as well among the precious items connected with the origins of Prague Castle. A bronze crucifixion from around 1000 holds a unique position; it was found in the cemetery surrounding St Mary’s Church and shows a beardless Christ dressed in a dalmatica (fig. 12). The ducal and saint’s graves have preserved original textiles, e.g. St Ludmila’s veil with the oldest known embroidery preserved in Bohemia (from around 1000).44



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Written accounts 850-1050

The existence of a modest scriptorium can be assumed for at least by the time of the foundation of the chapter (972/973). The first liturgical books that appeared in Prague were imported from the realm of Francia, namely e.g. from Regensburg, where Strachkvas-Christianus, a scion of the Přemyslid family and author of the famous legend of St Wenceslas, was educated in the 10th century. The first known liturgical work of the Prague scriptorium is the St Wenceslas Mass from the first half of the 11th century.45 Most interesting is a copy of Gumpold’s legend of the life of St Wenceslas, written by the Bishop of Mantua in the 980s. It is a luxurious illuminated edition commissioned by the former Frankish queen and Bohemian duchess Emma, now kept in the library of Wolfenbüttel.46



International connections 850-1050

Bohemia was part of a continuous band of Slavic settlement on the eastern and southern border of the Frankish Empire. Since prehistoric times, Central Europe represented a natural crossroads of long distance trade routes, stretching from north to south, from the Baltic to the Adriatic Sea (the Amber Road) and from east to west, from north-eastern and eastern Europe to the Caliphate of Córdoba (fig. 13). After the fall of the Avar Khaganate at the end of the 9th century, Central Europe opened up to Christian missionaries as well as political, cultural and economic contacts. Bohemia was annexed to the empire in 805 and since then it has been, despite political changes, a natural constituent of the Western European cultural sphere.47 The records of Ibrahim ibn Yaqub and al-Bakri, Arab travellers to Prague, mention the trade in salt and furs, but focus mainly on slaves, who were traded all over Europe at

that time, such as in Marseilles.48 In addition, amber, rock crystal, textiles, talc, and jewellery were imported from the East. Contacts in the sphere of culture and education were bound to the church realm. Priests and friars arrived from the West and helped to build up church institutions. The first Bohemian bishop was the Saxon Friar Thietmar. On the other hand, Bohemian intellectuals went to study in the empire, such as Christian-Strachkvas (Regensburg) or Cosmas, the first Bohemian annalist (Liège). Moreover, international contact can be seen by the imports of objects of art, craft and construction techniques.49 Sites within the realm of the Frankish Empire reflect numerous connections with Prague. Prague Castle was a royal residence, just like Nijmegen, Ingelheim and Ename. As with Biskupija Crkvina it was considered a burial ground for the elite, in the continuity of settlement it can be compared to Velzeke. It was the seat of the first Benedictine convent in Bohemia, and this makes a link with Montmajour and Ename; it was inspired by Northern Italian architecture, especially that of Ravenna, motifs from the central palace chapels can be found indirectly at the Rotunda of St Vitus as well. Further relations with Italy can be derived from the creation of Bishop Gumpold’s Legend of St Wenceslas. A coin of the Bohemian Duke Oldřich (died 1034) found in Kostoľany proves trade and commercial connections to the East (fig. 14).



Development of the site from 1050 to the Modern Era

A major Romanesque renovation (from 1135) resulted in a castle of stone, at the same time reducing the area and enclosing it in walls, reinforced by towers (the Black Tower still remains) (fig. 15).50 The reign of Emperor Charles IV (1344-1378) represents another important stage of development. He had the imperial palace, St George’s Basilica together with the Chapel of St Ludmila, and other buildings renovated. The foundations for a new Gothic cathedral were laid (1344), the master builder Matthias of Arras and Peter Parler from Gmünd were ordered to execute the building.51 The golden age of the 14th century came to an end with the Hussite looting of the castle. The appearance of Prague Castle had changed remarkably by the end of the 15th century, as Ladislaus Jagiellon had Benedikt Ried invited to implement elements of the Italian Renaissance. Modern reconstructions of the castle as one of many representative seats of the House of Habsburg were realised by Bonifatius Wohlmuth and Ulrico Aostalli, the architects for Rudolf II (1576-1612), after the relocation of the imperial court from Vienna to Prague in 1583. In the 17th century, after Rudolf’s death and the destructive events of the Thirty Years’ War, the transformation from a fortified castle into a representative palace, closed for the needs of the court, was finished.52 The building development of Prague Castle culminated at the time of the rule of Maria Theresa (1743-80), who had the castle buildings unified in the Classicist style by

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12. Bronze Cross with beardless Christ wearing a dalmatic from around 1000, found at cemetery surrounding Church of the Virgin Mary in 1950s. (© IACAS; photo: J. Gloc)

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13. Map of trade routes in 9th–10th c., main routes marked with a thick line; north–south: Volhynia– Northern Italy; east-west: Kiev–Cordoba (© IACAS)

14. Coin of Duke Oldřich from the Přemyslid family (c. 975–1034), found in a grave at cemetery at St George’s Church at Kostol’any pod Tribečom (photo: J. Gloc)

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15. Prague Castle from the east; foreground: Black Tower, a relic of the Romanesque fortification built after 1135 (photo: M. Frouz)

architect Nicolò Pacassi. In comparison to the Romanesque castle, the inhabited area had grown by approximately a third. The castle entered modern times as a closed unit. In the 19th century, the Bohemian state offices and church institutions were seated here. In the period of the Czech National Revival, the castle acquired new symbolic values. Only then, was the cathedral finished. The last important building phase took place after the foundation of the Czechoslovak Republic as President T. G. Masaryk (1918-1937) had it transformed into his seat. The Slovenian architect Josip Plečnik adopted it to the needs of a modern state’s administration.53 After World War II the castle was partially closed; its current shape shows imprints from the time of President Václav Havel (1990-2001), who made most of the area accessible to the public.



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History of archaeological research

The first finds from Prague Castle appeared with the opening of the grave of Duke Břetislav I in 1824, the second case occurred in 1837, as graves were accidentally discovered in the Royal Garden. A wave of interest for archaeological discoveries arose only in the 1870s, during the completion of St Vitus’ Cathedral when older building remains emerged. This completion was initiated by the Unity for the Completion of the Cathedral and led by the architects Josef Mocker (1835-1899) and Kamil Hilbert (1869-1933). The construction unearthed remains of the former Romanesque basilica and rotunda with the grave of St Wenceslas.54 The reconstructions of the 1920s offered an even larger opportunity for archaeological campaigns. At that time, a specialised department of the State Archaeological Institute was established, which operates to this day. The archaeological investigation of Prague Castle as a scientific project started on the 4th of June 1925. Its duration, the longest in the Czech Republic, places this excavation among the world’s foremost archaeological sites. From the beginning the work was guided by the employees of the Archaeological Institute (Jaroslav Pasternak, Jaroslav Böhm, and to a lesser extent by Jaroslav Filip). Karel Guth (1883-1943) was appointed the first head of the excavation; he was followed by Ivan Borkovský (1897-1976) and Zdeněk Smetánka (*1931). The most important contribution was that of Ivan Borkovský, who in 46 years managed to finish the excavation of the Third Courtyard (fig. 16), the Church of the Virgin Mary and St George’s Basilica.55 The last period of grand excavation campaigns was the 1980s during which the dating of the settlement of Prague Castle was shifted by a whole century back into the past. The excavations were led by archaeologist Jan Frolík from 1992 to 2010, and Jana Maříková-Kubková since 2010.

16. Remains of local wooden architecture found during the archaeological excavation in Third Courtyard, in front of west façade of Cathedral in the 1920s (© IACAS)

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17. Remains of Church of Virgin Mary, view from the window in the passageway between First and Second Courtyards (© IACAS)



206

The site today

Visitors to today’s Prague Castle  have the opportunity to observe a couple of important remains of the older history of the site, exclusively as exhibits. These monuments create a discontinuous and fragmentary image of different periods.56 The latest building phase of the Church of the Virgin Mary (11th century) can be observed through the windows in the passageway between the First and Second Courtyards; the walls and later stone plastering (fig. 17) have been preserved. Just like the remains of the Chapel of St Maurice with the Bishop’s House, they can be accessed all day without restrictions (fig. 18). The bars of a low annex (built in the 1920s) on the southern side of the cathedral offer a view of the south-west part of St Vitus’ Basilica. The interior of St George’s Basilica houses tiny preserved fragments of a pre-Romanesque building phase of red sandstone within the north wall of the nave, the position of the oldest ducal burials are marked in the pavement; an entrance fee needs to be paid here. The remains of St Vitus’ Rotunda and the crypt of St Vitus’ Basilica were unearthed in the course of a modern reconstruction of the royal tomb, only guided access is provided (fig. 19). Further traces of the oldest settlement of the castle are not accessible to the public at all; they are part of the archaeological reserve beneath the Third Courtyard and the Old Royal Palace. Preserved in situ are the oldest settlement layers of the fortification as well as the wooden structures. The very first spatial arrangement is still discernible in the current ground plan of the castle; moreover, it is witnessed by the position of the oldest fortification lines, paths, dwellings, as well as in the oldest cemetery containing the warrior’s grave. The historical topography and objects can be studied in the permanent exhibition The Story of Prague Castle, which offers a view of the history of the site from prehistoric times to the 20th century, supplemented by individual stories. It is situated on the Gothic floor of the Old Royal Palace, in an authentic architectural setting (fig. 20).57 Translation: Tomás Mařik

18. Archaeological area between Cathedral and Old Provost’s House in Third Courtyard; remains of St Vitus’ Basilica and a part of bishop’s area are visible between the bars (© IACAS)

19. Remains of Crypt of St Cosmas and Damian from Romanesque Vitus Basilica; archaeological area in passageway to new royal burial chamber beneath St Vitus’ Cathedral (photo: M. Frouz)

20. Exhibition “The Story of Prague Castle”, room of Old Land Rolls, Old Royal Palace (photo: J. Gloc)

Abbreviations IACAS - Institute of Archaeology of the Prague Castle

207

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

208

17 18

19 20

21 22

J. FROLÍK, “The natural settings of Prague Castle”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 30-35. J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ and I. HERICHOVÁ, “Geologický a topograficko-urbanistický vývoj areálu”, in: Archeologický atlas Pražského hradu, Díl I., Castrum Pragense 10, Prague, 2009, pp. 59-66. Ibid. J. ZAVŘEL, “Geologie, morfologie a osídlovaní malostranské kotliny”, Mediaevalia Archaeologica, 3, Pražský hrad a Malá Strana, 2001, pp. 7-27. J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ and I. HERICHOVÁ, op. cit., 2009, pp. 59-66. I. HERICHOVÁ, “Desať archeologických skvostov z Pražského hradu”, Historická revue, vol. XX, no. 1, 2009, p. 32. J. FROLÍK, “The prehistoric finds”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 36-41; H. BŘEZINOVÁ and J. TUREK, “Šňůrové a raně středověké pohřebiště v severním předpolí Pražského hradu - archeologický výzkum v Lumbeho zahradě”, Archeologické rozhledy, vol. LI, 1999, pp. 653-687. J. FROLÍK, op. cit., 2003, pp. 36-41. Ibid. D. TŘEŠTÍK, “Čechy. Čechové”, in: Střed Evropy okolo roku 1000, Prague, 2002, pp. 126-130. J. ŽEMLIČKA, “Čechy. Centra a organizace vlády”, in: Střed Evropy okolo roku 1000, Prague, 2002, pp. 130-132. J. FROLÍK, “Duke Bořivoj and the Church of the Virgin Mary”, in:  The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 52-55. D. TŘEŠTÍK, op. cit., 2002, pp. 126-130. J. FROLÍK, “The basilica and convent of the St. George - the oldest extant church building”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 60-63. J. FROLÍK, “Three stops in the Church of St. Vitus”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 64-67. D. TŘEŠTÍK, “Čechy. Založení pražského a moravského biskupství”, in: Střed Evropy okolo roku 1000, Prague, 2002, pp. 144-145; D. TŘEŠTÍK, “K založení pražského biskupství v letech 968– 976: pražská a řezenská tradice”, in: Vlast a rodný kraj v díle historika. Sborník prací žáků a přátel věnovaný profesoru Josefu Petráňovi, J. Pánek (ed.), Práce Historického ústavu AV ČR. Řada C, Miscellanea 15, 2004, pp. 179-196; D. KALHOUS, “Záhadné počátky pražského biskupství”, in: Evropa a Čechy na konci středověku. Sborník příspěvků věnovaných Františku Šmahelovi, E. Doležalová, R. Novotný and P. Soukup (eds.), 2004, pp. 195-208. J. ŽEMLIČKA, “Čechy. Centra a organizace vlády”, in: Střed Evropy okolo roku 1000, Prague, 2002, pp. 130-132. The former Queen and Duchess Emma represents one of the most interesting female characters of early medieval Bohemian history. A number of theories have been proposed on her origin; most probably she is of Frankish descent. She entered history by a couple of notes in written sources that connected her with Prague Castle. Archaeologically, she is known from coin inscriptions, reading ENMA REGINA *  CIVITASMELNIC, as well as from an illumination on the votive page of the so-called Wolfenbüttel copy of the Legend of St Wenceslas by Bishop Gumpold. J. KILIÁN, L. POLANSKÝ et al., Emma Regina - Civitas Melnic: sborník příspěvků z konference u příležitosti 1000. výročí úmrtí kněžny Emmy Reginy a 80. jubilea narození Pavla Radoměrského konané 9. listopadu 2006 v Regionálním muzeu Mělník, Mělník - Prague, 2008. Břetislav (1002/1005–1055) became ruler after the death of his father in 1034 to consolidated power after years of political instability. In 1039, he took advantage of riots that upset Poland and with the assistance of bishop Šebíř marched against Cracow and Gnezno, looting the relics of St Adalbert. Břetislav decreed upon his grave the first Bohemian code, the so-called Břetislav Decrees. His raid aroused the attention of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, who in 1040 invaded Bohemia, and in 1041 even besieged Prague Castle. Břetislav subjugated to the emperor; on his knees, wearing penitential garment, he was begging for remission in Regensburg. I. BOHÁČOVÁ, “The Archaeology of the dawn of Prague”, in: Burg - Vorburg - Suburbium. Zur Problematik der Neben areale frühmittelalterlicher Zentren, I. Boháčová, and L. Poláček (eds.), Internationale Tagungen in Mikulčice VII, Brno, 2008, pp. 103-119. J. ČIHÁKOVÁ, Z. DRAGOUN and J. PODLISKA, “Pražská sídelní aglomerace v 10.-11. století”, in: Přemyslovský stát kolem roku 1000, L. Polanský, J. Sláma and D. Třeštík (eds.), Prague, 2000, pp. 127-146.

23 The grave was removed together with the authentic archaeological context, as if in situ, and can be viewed in The Story of Prague Castle exhibition. K. TOMKOVÁ and J. FROLÍK, “Topografie pohřbívání v areálu Pražského hradu a jeho předpolích”, in: Pohřbívání na Pražském hradě a jeho předpolích, Castrum Pragense 7, Díl I.1, 2005, pp. 7-24. 24 The quest for its discovery represented one of the main goals of the archaeological excavation of the castle since 1925. Its remains were investigated by Ivan Borkovský in the 1930s and 1950s. 25 J. FROLÍK, J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ, E. RŮŽIČKOVÁ and A. ZEMAN, Nejstarší sakrální architektura Pražského hradu, 2000, pp. 17-97. 26 The oldest form of the building can be estimated from its remains excavated by Ivan Borkovský. Most of the traces were erased by renovations in the following centuries and by the reconstruction at the end of the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th century. 27 The fragments of the southern apse were discovered by Kamil Hilbert at the beginning of the 20th century. 28 J. FROLÍK, J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ, E. RŮŽIČKOVÁ and A. ZEMAN, op. cit., 2000, pp. 97-145. 29 The preserved structure is the result of a radical Baroque rebuilding; J. FROLÍK, “The basilica and convent of the St. George”, op. cit., 2003, pp. 60-63. 30 J. FROLÍK, J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ, E. RŮŽIČKOVÁ and A. ZEMAN, op. cit., 2000, pp. 145-209; J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ, “The Rotunda of St Vitus, The Basilica of SS Vitus, Adaldert, and the Virgin Mary”, in: Cathedral seen and unseen I, in press. 31 P. VLČEK et al., Umělecké památky Prahy - Pražský hrad a Hradčany, 2000. 32 J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ, “The Rotunda of St Vitus”, op. cit., in press. 33 Ibid. 34 K. TOMKOVÁ and J. FROLÍK, op. cit., 2005, pp. 7-24. 35 J. FROLÍK and Z. SMETÁNKA, Archeologie na Pražském hradě, 1997. 36 J. FROLÍK, “Everyday life: Danger and safety, work and pleasure”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 75-81. 37 J. FROLÍK, “The half-forgotten Founder” (pp. 56-59); “The Basilica and Convent of St. George: The oldest extant Church Buildings” (pp. 60-63); “Three stops in the Church of St. Vitus” (pp. 6467); “Did Ibrahim Ibn Jakub visit Prague Castle?” (pp. 68-70); all in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003. 38 A “bishop’s court” was for the first time mentioned in the Legends of St Wenceslas to the year 994. But its beginnings are connected with the foundation of the Prague bishopric in 973. First it was a wooden building, several times reconstructed; only after 1060 it was rebuilt in stone. 39 J. FROLÍK, “The old Town Provostship at the Prague Castle until the end of the 13th century according to the excavation in 1984”, Castrum Pragense 2, Prague, 1999, pp. 169-484. 40 J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ and I. HERICHOVÁ, op. cit., 2006. 41 J. FROLÍK, J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ, E. RŮŽIČKOVÁ and A. ZEMAN, op. cit., 2000. 42 J. MAŘÍKOVÁ-KUBKOVÁ and I. HERICHOVÁ, Revize první stavební fáze kostela Panny Marie na Pražském hradě/Hradčanech - návrat po šedesátipěti letech, Stoletá Praha XXXI, 2015, 2, pp. 62-75. 43 J. FROLÍK et al., “Pohřebiště v Lumbeho zahradě na Pražském hradě”, Díl I. Katalog a Díl II. Studie, 2014. 44 M. BRAVERMANOVÁ and K. BENEŠOVSKÁ, “The cult and relics of St Ludmila”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 132-135. 45 D. EBEN, “The Beginnings of Liturgical Chant at St Vitus’ Cathedral, Prague”, in: Cathedral seen and unseen I (in press) 46 J. ZACHOVÁ, “Legendy Wolfenbüttelského rukopisu”, Filosofia, 2010, p. 207. 47 D. TŘEŠTÍK, “Die Tschechen”, in: Europas Mitte, Band 1, Stuttgart, 2000, pp. 356-366. 48 J. FROLÍK, “Did Ibrahim Ibn Jakub visit Prague Castle?”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 68-70. 49 D. TŘEŠTÍK, Vznik Velké Moravy. Moravané, Čechové a střední Evropa v letech 791-871, Prague, 2001. 50 J. FROLÍK and P. CHOTĚBOR, “The Transformation of the Fortified Settlement into a stone Castle”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 122-127. 51 The construction was completed only after centuries in the spirit of the 19th-century romantic heritage preservation and Czech patriotic interests. Cfr. P. CROSSLEY and Z. OPACIC, “Koruna

209

52

53 54 55

56

Českého království”, in: Karel IV. Císař z Boží milosti. Kultura a umění za vlády Lucemburků 13101437, J. Fajt (ed.), Prague, 2006, pp. 197-217. E. FUČÍKOVÁ, “Pražský hrad za Rudolfa II., jeho předchůdců a následovníků (1530-1648)”, in: Rudolf II. and Prague. The Court and the City (published on the occasion of the opening of the exhibition Rudolf II and Prague: the Imperial Court and Residential City as the Cultural and Spiritual Heart of Central Europe, 30 May 1997 - 7 September 1997), Prague, 1997, pp. 2-71. J. KOVTUN and Z. LUKEŠ,  Pražský hrad za  TGM, Prague, 1996; Josip Plečnik. An architect of Prague Castle, Z. Lukeš, D. Prelovšek and T. Valena (eds.), Prague, 1997. J. MAŘÍKOVÁ and J. FROLÍK, “História archeologického výskumu Pražského hradu”, in: Historická revue, vol. XX, no. 1, 2009, pp. 39-45. J. FROLÍK, “Fragments from the history of archaeological research”, in: The Story of Prague Castle, Prague, 2003, pp. 458-461; idem, “Achtzig Jahre Archäologie auf der Prager Burg (Zur Erinnerung an die Anfänge der Archäologischen Ausgrabung der Prager Burg als Wissenschaftlichen Projekt)”, in: Sites of Memory. Between Scientific Research and Collective Representations, J. MaříkováKubková, N. Schlanger and S. Lévin (eds.), Castrum Pragense 8, Prague, 2008, pp. 31-45. J. MAŘÍKOVÁ, “Die Rolle der Archäologie bie der Formierung der Symbolik der Prager Burg”, in: Sites of Memory, op. cit., 2008, pp. 95-104.

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