Pseudodiarrhoea in zebra mussels Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) exposed to microcystins

Share Embed


Descrição do Produto

810 The Journal of Experimental Biology 209, 810-816 Published by The Company of Biologists 2006 doi:10.1242/jeb.02081

Pseudodiarrhoea in zebra mussels Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) exposed to microcystins Guillaume Juhel1,*, John Davenport1, John O’Halloran1, Sarah Culloty1, Ruth Ramsay1, Kevin James2, Ambrose Furey2 and Orla Allis2 1

Department of Zoology, Ecology and Plant Science, and Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Lee Maltings, Prospect Row, Cork, Irelan and 2PROTEOBIO, Mass Spectrometry Centre for Proteomics and Biotoxin Research, Department of Chemistry, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland *Author for correspondence (e-mail: [email protected]) Accepted 9 January 2006 Summary Such selective rejection was not observed with low or nonMicrocystins are produced by bloom-forming toxic strains and would therefore tend to enhance the cyanobacteria and pose significant health and ecological presence of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa in mixed problems. In this study we show that zebra mussels Microcystis aeruginosa cyanobacterial blooms, as well as respond differently to different strains of Microcystis transferring toxins from the water column to the benthos. aeruginosa, and that a highly toxic strain causes zebra The observed acute irritant response to the toxin mussels to produce large quantities of mucous pseudofaeces, ‘pseudodiarrhoea’, that are periodically represents the first demonstration of an adverse sublethal expelled hydraulically through the pedal gape by shell effect of microcystins on invertebrate ecophysiology. Our results also suggest that it could be a specific response to valve adductions rather than by the normal ciliary tracts. microcystin-LF, a little studied toxin variant. Analysis of the pseudofaecal ejecta showed that the proportion of Microcystis aeruginosa relative to Asterionella formosa was high in the pseudofaeces and even higher in the ‘pseudodiarrhoea’ when a mixed diet Supplementary material available online at http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/810/DC1 was given to the mussels. This confirms that very toxic Microcystis aeruginosa were preferentially being rejected by comparison with the non-toxic diatom in the Key words: zebra mussel, Microcystis aeruginosa, microcystins, pseudofaeces, ecophysiology, feeding behaviour. pseudofaeces and even more so in the ‘pseudodiarrhoea’.

Introduction Microcystins (MCs) are endotoxins produced by cyanobacteria, present inside the algal cells that are released into the environment after cell lysis (Sivonen and Jones, 1999). Cyanobacteria are considered as a nuisance because they form harmful algal blooms (HABs) in freshwater bodies subject to eutrophication (Codd, 1992; Nicholls et al., 2002; Mur et al., 1999). Microcystins are hepatotoxic, tumour promoting (Falconer, 1991) and induce liver cell apoptosis (Chen et al., 2005). They therefore cause serious, often lethal, health effects on fish, domestic animals and humans (World Health Organisation, 2003; Azevedo et al., 2002; Carmichael, 2001; Chorus and Bartram, 1999). The freshwater zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) is invasive and established in water bodies throughout Europe and North America and has recently colonised Ireland. As they reproduce rapidly and foul a wide range of structures, they are of serious concern to industry and environmental managers.

Efficient suspension feeders, they occur in extremely high densities and cause considerable changes in ecosystem composition/function such as local extirpation of native mussel populations (Strayer et al., 1999), increases in water clarity (Budd et al., 2001) and the removal of microalgae from water columns (Raikow et al., 2004), hence influencing HABs (Reeders et al., 1989; Roditi et al., 1996). One of the most common species responsible for HABs is Microcystis aeruginosa (Kützing). The relationship between this cyanobacterium and the zebra mussel has already been studied but with conflicting results. Laboratory experiments have shown a decline in Microcystis aeruginosa abundance because mussels preferentially ingested cyanobacteria over diatoms (Baker et al., 1998), while others have reported enhanced intake of green algae in the presence of cyanobacteria (Dionisio Pires et al., 2004). Field studies have shown that, in the North American Great Lakes, mussels were capable of selective rejection of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa

THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

Pseudodiarrhoea in zebra mussels in pseudofaeces, promoting cyanobacterial HABs (Vanderploeg et al., 1996; Vanderploeg et al., 2001). Dionisio Pires and Van Donk (Dionisio Pires and Van Donk, 2002) found that lower clearance rates of phytoplankton by Dreissena were obtained with a mixture of toxic cyanobacteria and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Dangeard) than with a mixture containing non-toxic cyanobacteria. Their results also showed that mussels might finally promote a dominance of Chlamydomonas over Microcystis, especially when the cyanobacterial strain used was toxic. Detailed knowledge of the capture and sorting of particles by the gills and labial palps of the zebra mussel (Baker et al., 1998; Baker et al., 2000) is available, but very little information has been collected concerning the effects of cyanobacterial toxins on food selection processes. Furthermore microcystins belong to a family of endotoxins that comprises different variants. Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) occurs most frequently (Dawson, 1998) and is considered the most toxic (Imanishi et al., 2005) but few data are available concerning the toxicity of the other variants. Our experiments were therefore designed to provide greater insight regarding the toxicity of microcystins by comparing the effects of Microcystis aeruginosa strains, of different toxicity levels and different toxic profiles, on the ecophysiology of zebra mussels. Materials and methods Production of algal species All algal species were cultured under controlled conditions (20±1°C; 12·h:12·h light:dark cycle). Three strains were cultured and used in the exponential stable phase of their growth. The strains cultured were the diatom Asterionella formosa (Hassal) (SAG 8.95), obtained from Sammlung von Algenkulturen Göttingen (SAG), and two strains of the toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa (CCAP 1450/10 and CCAP 1450/06), obtained from the Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP). Asterionella formosa was cultured in Diatom + Vitamin Mix medium and the other species were cultured in Jaworsky medium (JM). Toxic profile of the toxic strains of Microcystis aeruginosa To obtain toxic profiles, the general procedure of Ortea et al. (Ortea et al., 2004) was followed. Briefly, algal samples (50·ml) were freeze-thawed and sonicated to burst the cells so that all of the toxin would be released. The samples were then filtered through GFB filter papers by vacuum filtration. The filtrates were then applied to optimised solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns (Bakerbond C18 Polarplus cartridge; Phillipsburg, NJ, USA) using the method based on that developed by Lawton et al. (Lawton et al., 1994). The SPE cartridge was conditioned with methanol and water. The filtered algal sample was applied and the cartridge was washed with 10·ml portions of 25% methanol/water. Toxins were then eluted using methanol (6·ml) containing 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and the eluent was evaporated to dryness using a Turbo Vap LV Evaporator, and reconstituted in water (1·ml) for analysis.

811

Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) analyses of microcystins were carried out using a HP100 series LC system with an ultraviolet-photodiode array (UV-PDA) detector (Agilent, Ipswich, UK) linked with an LCQ ion-trap mass spectrometer (ThermoFinnegan, San Jose, USA). The mass spectrometer was equipped with an electrospray ionisation (ESI) interface. Using a flow injection rate of 3·␮l min–1, the mass spectrometer was tuned using MCLR; the optimised temperature was 220°C with a voltage of 3.0·V. The optimum relative collision energy (% RCE) was determined for each of the four toxic variants studied: MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR and MC-LF. Separation of the microcystins was achieved using a Luna (2) (5·␮m, 2.0⫻150·mm, Phenomenex, Macclesfield, UK) column at 40°C (5·␮l injection). A gradient elution of acetonitrile (with 0.05% TFA) over 42·min was used at a flow rate of 0.2·ml·min–1. Mussel collection and handling Thirty mussels were collected from the submerged area of a quay in Ballina Marina, Killaloe, Tipperary, Ireland, in March 2004. Only adult mussels between 20 and 24·mm shell length were used to minimize size-related variation. They were brought back to the laboratory in lake water and acclimated to standard filtered (0.45·␮m) freshwater maintained at 20±1°C for 48·h prior to the feeding experiments. Only active individuals showing valve and siphon movements were used in the experiments. Diets offered to the mussels Each cultured strain was used in single cell suspensions to feed the mussels, corresponding to three separate diets. They were diluted in standard filtered (0.45·␮m) freshwater to adjust each diet to comparable mass of suspended matter. Standard freshwater was prepared according to Sprung (Sprung, 1987). The fourth diet consisted of a mixture of the diatom Asterionella formosa and the toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10. This was made up so that each of the two strains represented 50% of the total biomass of cells present in the mixture. The total cell mass per unit of volume was similar to that employed in the other three diets. Each diet was supplied to the mussels at bloom concentration (106·cell·ml–1 for the two cyanobacterial strains and the mixed diet and 104·cell·ml–1 for the non-toxic diatom). All algal cell concentrations were measured by Coulter Counter after determining their equivalent spherical diameter (ESD). Experimental setup An experimental Perspex flow-through system, consisting of a chamber with baffles, was designed to ensure constant unidirectional flow at a steady microalgal concentration, as described (Barillé et al., 2003) (Fig.·1). The system was supplied with the algal diets from an agitated tank through a Masterflex L/S Economy Drive peristaltic pump (Cole Parmer Instrument Company, Vernon Hills, IL, USA) at a flow rate of around 100·ml·h–1.

THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

812

G. Juhel and others algal types present in the pseudofaecal materials from the cell concentrations. Assuming that the pseudofaecal ejecta are composed only of cells and mucus, we calculated the percentage of mucus by mass, by subtraction.

A b

b

M

Inflow

Outflow

B Inflow b

b InS Pseudofaeces

Faeces ExS M

Outflow

Pg Fig.·1. Schematic representation of the flow-through system showing physical separation of faeces from pseudofaeces. (A) Plan view; (B) side view. b, baffles; M, mussel; InS, inhalant siphon; ExS, exhalant siphon; Pg, pedal gape.

The system was particularly designed to separate physically pseudofaeces from faeces produced by the mussels (Fig.·1). The mussels were placed close to the outflow and the baffle acted as a separation; the inhalant siphon opened in the middle part of the chamber (between the two baffles) and the exhalant siphon in the right hand part of the chamber (between the right baffle and the outflow). Pseudofaeces were consequently expelled in the middle part of the chamber and the faeces in the right hand section of the system, facilitating separate collection using a Pasteur pipette (Fig.·1).

Results Characteristics of each of the diets Each of the diets was supplied to the mussels at bloom concentration. For the two cyanobacterial strains, cell concentrations were adjusted to 106·cell·ml–1 and 104·cell·ml–1 for the non-toxic diatom by dilution from the culture. Similar concentrations were obtained with the mixture diet. Size spectra obtained with the Coulter Counter and expressed as equivalent spherical diameter (ESD) showed that the diatom Asterionella formosa was the largest of the three algae tested (ESD: 6.5–12.0·␮m). The two cyanobacterial strains were smaller (CCAP 1450/10: ESD: 3.0–4.5·␮m; CCAP 1450/06: ESD: 3.0–6.5·␮m). These values are comparable to the size of the cells examined with a light microscope (Fig.·2). Microscopic observations showed that the cyanobacterial strains used consisted of single cell suspensions (rather than colonies) and the diatom Asterionella formosa appeared to form chains of 5–10 attached cells (Fig.·2). Toxic profile of Microcystis aeruginosa Four microcystin variants were investigated in each of the two strains of Microcystis aeruginosa cultured. The strain CCAP 1450/06 retained only one variant: MC-LR in a low concentration (7.4·␮g·l–1) whereas the strain CCAP 1450/10

Feeding trial Feeding experiments consisted of 90·min trials, performed for each diet with six individual replicates for the single cell suspensions diets and ten for the mixture trial. Individuals were filmed at 25·fields·s–1 from the side of the chamber, or from below as required. Video analysis was performed for two diets: Asterionella formosa and Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10. For these diets, the mussels’ movements were deconstructed into different actions and the frequency of each action evaluated (see Results for details). For the other diets, videos were screened to evaluate the general behaviour of the mussels. Analysis of pseudofaecal ejecta At the end of 90·min trials with the mixture of non-toxic diatoms and highly toxic cyanobacteria, pseudofaecal ejecta were collected using a Pasteur pipette. Subsamples (each 1·ml) were analysed with a Coulter Counter to determine concentrations of the two cell types, following resuspension of ejecta in 10·ml of standard freshwater. The rest of the sample was volumetrically measured, then filtered and dried to determine dry weight. From the algal cultures, the individual dry weights of each of the two cell types were determined. These were then used to calculate the weight of each of the

Fig.·2. Optical microscopy of the three algal strains used in the study. (A) Microcystis aeruginosa (strain CCAP 14505/06), (B) Microcystis aeruginosa (strain CCAP 14505/10), (C) Asterionella formosa.

THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

Pseudodiarrhoea in zebra mussels

813

Table·1. Toxic profile of each of the two cyanobacterial strains used in feeding experiments with the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha Microcystin concentration (␮g·l–1)

Asterionella formosa Microcystis aeruginosa Strain CCAP 1450/10 Strain CCAP 1450/06

MC-LR

MC-YR

MC-LF

MC-RR

Total

0

0

0

0

0

23.8 7.4

0 0

82.9 0

0 0

106.7 7.4

MC, microcystin.

was very toxic with 23.8·␮g·l–1 of MC-LR and 82.9·␮g·l–1 of MC-LF (Table·1). Video analysis of the feeding behaviour of zebra mussels Analysis of videos showed that all six individuals tested per given diet showed the same feeding behavioural patterns in response to that diet. When fed the non-toxic diatom Asterionella formosa, all mussels behaved ‘normally’ with expulsion of pseudofaeces through their inhalant siphons (Fig.·3A; see movie 1 in supplementary material) and ejection of faeces through their exhalant siphons (Fig.·3B; see movie 2 in supplementary material); both types of ejecta being produced in small quantities. We also observed that during ‘normal’ behaviour, mussels periodically closed their shell valves and siphons (not illustrated). When fed the very toxic cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10, a markedly different pattern was observed in all test mussels. Normal expulsion of pseudofaeces through the inhalant siphon and faeces through the exhalant

siphon was observed as well as periodical valve closures, but quantities of pseudofaecal material were greatly enhanced, and appeared as jets of liquid green material (Fig.·3C; see movie 3 in supplementary material). In addition, we noticed expulsion of other pseudofaecal material as green clouds through the pedal gape (effectively an ‘extra’ siphon in this species) of the mussels (Fig.·3C–F; see movies 4, 5 and 6 in supplementary material); this we term ‘pseudodiarrhoea’. Pseudodiarrhoeal pulses through the inhalant siphon and pedal gape were accompanied by sharp adductions of the shell valves; this suggests that the mantle cavity was becoming full of the green material, which was being expelled hydraulically, rather than being ejected by the ciliary tracts used during normal pseudofaecal expulsion. The same phenomenon was observed when we gave a mixture of the non-toxic Asterionella formosa and highly toxic Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10 to mussels (not illustrated). However, when mussels were fed with lowtoxicity cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa strain CCAP

Fig.·3. Feeding behaviour of the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. (A–F) Frames from videos; (A–D) side views, (E,F) underside views. (A) Pseudofaecal material expelled by the inhalant siphon of the mussels when fed the non-toxic diatom Asterionella formosa. (B) Faecal material expelled by the exhalant siphon of the zebra mussel when fed the diatom Asterionella formosa. (C) Copious pseudofaecal material expelled by the inhalant siphon and copious pseudodiarrhoea expelled through the pedal gape of the zebra mussel when fed the toxic cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa (strain CCAP 1450/10). (D) Copious faecal material expelled by the exhalant siphon and copious pseudodiarrhoeal material expelled through the pedal gape of the zebra mussel when fed the toxic cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa (strain CCAP 1450/10). (E,F) Pseudofaecal material expelled by the inhalant siphon and pseudodiarrhoeal material expelled through the pedal gape of the zebra mussel when fed the toxic cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa (strain CCAP 1450/10). InS, Inhalant siphon; ExS, exhalant siphon; Pg, pedal gape; PIn, pseudofaeces expelled through the inhalant siphon; FEx, faeces expelled through the exhalant siphon; PPg, pseudodiarrhoea expelled at the pedal gape. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

G. Juhel and others

Events (h–1)

30

Asterionella formosa Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10

100

20 10 0 Pseudofaeces Faeces production production

Siphon Pseudodiarrhoea closure

Percentage of each algal species and mucus

814

% M. aeruginosa % A. formosa % Mucus

80 60 40 20 0 Mix

Actions

Pin

Ppg

Material type Fig.·4. Statistical analysis of the Dreissena polymorpha’s feeding behaviour when fed the non-toxic diatom Asterionella formosa and the very toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10. Values are means ± s.e.m. (N=6).

1450/06, only ‘normal’ feeding behaviour (not illustrated) was observed, with small quantities of pseudofaeces being expelled through the inhalant siphon, faeces expelled intermittently through the exhalant siphon and mussels closing their shell valves and siphons periodically. Statistical analysis of zebra mussel behaviour The frequency of each of the mussels’ actions previously described was recorded over the 90-min feeding trial when the mussels were fed the non-toxic diatom and the very toxic cyanobacterial strain Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10. The frequency values given hereafter are average values ± s.e.m. Concerning pseudofaeces production, no statistical difference could be observed (Student’s t-test; P=0.510) between the two diets even though the frequency of pseudofaecal expulsions was 10.4±1.5·h–1 with mussels fed the diatom against 8.9±1.7·h–1 when the mussels were fed the toxic cyanobacteria (Fig.·4). The same pattern was observed for faeces production (Mann–Whitney Rank Sum test, P=0.818) between the two diets even if the frequency of faeces production was 7.3±4.0·h–1 for mussels fed Asterionella against 2.3±0.8·h–1 when offered Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10. However, significantly more valve closure events were observed in mussels fed the toxic cyanobacteria compared with those fed the non-toxic diatom (Student’s t-test; P=0.008; 22.4±3.3·h–1 and 10.3±1.9·h–1, respectively; Fig.·4). Composition of pseudodiarrhoea/pseudofaeces Pseudofaecal and pseudodiarrhoeal samples were analysed for algal type, algal concentration and mucus content when mussels were offered the mixture diet (Fig.·5). As shown earlier, Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10 and Asterionella formosa cells did not overlap in size (no overlap in their ESD). It was therefore possible to determine their concentration within the same sample with the Coulter Counter. From the culture we determine that the specific mass of Microcystis aeruginosa CCAP 1450/10 cells was

Fig.·5. Composition of mixed algal diet, pseudofaeces and pseudodiarrhoea. Composition (% dry mass) of the mixed algal diet and pseudofaecal materials produced by the zebra mussel when fed a mixture of the toxic cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa (strain CCAP 1450/10) and the non-toxic diatom Asterionella formosa. Mix, mixed diet; Pin, pseudofaeces expelled by the inhalant siphon of the mussels; Ppg, pseudodiarrhoea expelled through the pedal gape of the mussels. Values are means ± s.e.m. (N=10).

1.4⫻10–8·mg·cell–1. Asterionella formosa cells had a specific mass of 2.57⫻10–7·mg·cell–1. Back calculations from the cell densities showed that the two materials differed slightly in composition. Pseudofaeces expelled by the inhalant siphon were composed of 46.1±3.2% M. aeruginosa, 24.5±2.4% Asterionella formosa and 29.4±5.2% mucus by dry mass (mean ± s.e.m.). Pseudodiarrhoea expelled through the pedal gape was 40.7±6.6% Microcystis aeruginosa, 14.0±1.04% Asterionella formosa and 45.2±7.00% mucus by mass (mean ± s.e.m.). Statistical analysis showed no significant differences in the proportion of Microcystis aeruginosa between pseudofaeces and pseudodiarrhoea (one-way ANOVA on arcsine transformed data; P=0.558; N=10; data normally distributed). However, pseudodiarrhoeal material had significantly less Asterionella formosa than pseudofaeces (ANOVA on ranks on arcsine transformed data; P=0.002; N=10; data not normally distributed). Although pseudodiarrhoea appeared to contain more mucus than pseudofaeces, the difference was not statistically significant (one-way ANOVA on arcsine transformed data; P=0.078; N=10; data normally distributed). Discussion Zebra mussels are suspension feeders that are able to filter a wide range of phytoplanktonic particles (Horgan and Mills, 1997). Particles are generally filtered and captured through the mussels’ inhalant siphons and sorted on the gills and labial palps (Baker et al., 2000). Unwanted particles are embedded in strings of mucus and transported to the inhalant siphon for rejection as pseudofaeces, whereas preferred particles are carried to the mouth for ingestion and digestion. They are ultimately ejected as faeces through the exhalant siphon of the

THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

Pseudodiarrhoea in zebra mussels bivalve (Baker et al., 1998; Baker et al., 2000). The mechanisms underlying food selection are not well known but variations in particle clearance rates have been attributed to differences in food quality [related to size, polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFAs) content or toxic content] (Dioniso Pires and Van Donk, 2002; Dionisio Pires et al., 2004). Our study demonstrates that toxic strains of Microcystis aeruginosa have a dramatic effect on processing of microalgae by zebra mussels, whereas nontoxic strains do not. Our data document the first sublethal adverse effect of microcystins on the ecophysiology of an invertebrate species; an acute irritant response to highly toxic Microcystis aeruginosa. This response could be considered as analogous to the acute diarrhoeal symptoms of microcystin toxicity in humans (World Health Organisation, 2003; Dillenberg and Dehnel, 1960) in that it causes substantial shedding of Microcystis aeruginosa in highly mucous pseudofaeces and pseudodiarrhoea. Furthermore, we noted that, in the presence of the very toxic cyanobacteria, mussels closed their shell valves and siphons significantly more often than they did when fed a non-toxic diatom species. Though mussels normally punctuate their active filtering sessions with periods of quiescence during which the valves close and the siphons withdraw (Morton, 1969; Horgan and Mills, 1997), these marked differences in valve closure rhythm are another sign of the mussels’ irritation due to the toxicity of microcystins. Analysis of the toxic profiles of the two cyanobacteria showed that the most abundant microcystins variant was MCLF in the very toxic cyanobacterial strain whereas only a small amount of MC-LR was present in that same strain and in the low-toxicity strain. Previous studies investigating zebra mussels feeding on toxic and non-toxic Microcystis aeruginosa (Vanderploeg et al., 2001; Dionisio Pires and Van Donk, 2002) were performed with strains containing only the most abundant variant in nature [MC-LR (Dawson, 1998)]. MC-LR is also considered to be the most toxic variant among microcystins (Imanishi et al., 2005). However, no information is available on the relative toxicity of MC-LF, but we suggest that, the reaction of the mussels, manifested as the production of copious ‘pseudodiarrhoea’, indicates that MC-LF is a highly toxic microcystins variant that merits further studies. Analysis of the two types of pseudofaecal ejecta corresponding to the mixture diet showed that they were mostly composed of toxic cyanobacteria, particularly the ‘pseudodiarrhoea’. This confirms that Microcystis aeruginosa was preferentially being rejected in comparison with Asterionella formosa, since proportions of the two species in the diet were equal, a process being greatly enhanced by production of ‘pseudodiarrhoea’. Earlier work in the Great Lakes of Canada (Vanderploeg et al., 1996; Vanderploeg et al., 2001) demonstrated that zebra mussels could distinguish between toxic Microcystis aeruginosa and desirable food algae (Cryptomonas), removing the former in pseudofaeces released into the environment, and hence encouraging blooms of the toxic species. This response does not occur in the presence of low toxicity Microcystis aeruginosa, which are ingested.

815

Furthermore, we noted that the pseudodiarrhoeal material was easily resuspended in water after collection with the Pasteur pipette, indicating that it could potentially enhance algal blooms depending on the water mixing regime. Microscopic observations of the ‘pseudodiarrhoea’ stained with Trypan Blue also showed mucus aggregations (blue staining) and Microcystis cells that appeared green, therefore still viable (not illustrated). Selective rejection, accentuated by the pseudodiarrhoeal response, will therefore tend to enhance the presence of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa in mixed Microcystis aeruginosa cyanobacterial blooms, as well as transferring toxins from the water column to the benthos. These results also imply that zebra mussels can distinguish between cyanobacterial strains even though the organisms are of indistinguishable size and morphology but of different toxic content. The long-term effects of microcystins have been studied on zebra mussel larvae (Dionisio Pires et al., 2003) and other zooplanktonic species (DeMott, 1999; Lampert, 1981). These studies all showed that microcystins had an inhibitory effect, mostly on growth, feeding and generally survival of the animals. However, the impact of pseudodiarrhoea on zebra mussels exposed to high levels of microcystins for long periods is not known, but at the very least the response is likely to be energetically costly, since molluscan mucus is known to be expensive to produce (Davies and Hawkins, 1998). Further investigations are therefore needed to evaluate the impact of microcystins on the physiological energetics of the zebra mussel. As mentioned previously, microcystins are considered to have generally negative effects on aquatic animals but no detrimental effects have so far been observed in adult zebra mussels. The expulsion of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa in mucous pseudodiarrhoea (rather than their ingestion), may therefore perhaps be a positive resistance factor that contributes to the successful spread of zebra mussels throughout water bodies subject to eutrophication. We acknowledge the Higher Education Funding Council of Ireland for funding supplied under the Programme for Research in Third Level Institutions, Cycle 2 (National Development Plan), to the ZEBRATOX project. We also thank the two anonymous referees for their valuable comments on the manuscript and Ballina Marina for access to the sample site. References Azevedo, S. M. F. O., Carmichael, W. W., Jochimsen, E. M., Rinehart, K. L., Lau, S., Shaw, G. R. and Eaglesham, G. K. (2002). Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in CaruaruBrazil. Toxicology 181, 441-446. Baker, S. M., Levinton, J. S., Kurdziel, J. P. and Shumway, S. E. (1998). Selective feeding and biodeposition by zebra mussels and their relation to changes in phytoplankton composition and seston load. J. Shellfish Res. 17, 1207-1213. Baker, S. M., Levinton, J. S. and Ward, J. E. (2000). Particle transport in the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas). Biol. Bull. 199, 116-125. Barille, L., Haure, J., Pales-Espinosa, E. and Morancais, M. (2003).

THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

816

G. Juhel and others

Finding new diatoms for intensive rearing of the pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas): energy budget as a selective tool. Aquaculture 217, 501-514. Budd, J. W., Drummer, T. D., Nalepa, T. F. and Fahnenstiel, G. L. (2001). Remote sensing of biotic effects: Zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) influence water clarity in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Limnol. Oceanogr. 46, 213-223. Carmichael, W. W. (2001). Health effects of toxin-producing cyanobacteria: ‘The CyanoHABs’. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 7, 1393-1407. Chen, T., Wang, Q. S., Cui, J., Yang, W., Shi, Q., Hua, Z. C., Ji, J. G. and Shen, P. P. (2005). Induction of apoptosis in mouse liver by microcystinLR-A combined transcriptomic, proteomic, and simulation strategy. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 4, 958-974. Chorus, I. and Bartram, J. (1999). Toxic Cyanobacteria In Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. London: E & FN Spon. Codd, G. A. (1992). The changing face of Europe: disasters, pollution and the environment. In Aquatic Problems, Vol. 14. Proceedings of the Fourth Disaster Prevention and Limitation Conference (ed. A. Z. Keller and H. C. Wilson), pp. 33-62. Bradford: University of Bradford. Davies, M. S. and Hawkins, S. J. (1998). Mucus from marine molluscs. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34, 1-71. Dawson, R. M. (1998). The toxicology of microcystins. Toxicon 36, 953-962. Demott, W. R. (1999). Foraging strategies and growth inhibition in five daphnids feeding on mixtures of a toxic cyanobacterium and a green alga. Freshw. Biol. 42, 263-274. Dillenberg, H. O. and Dehnel, M. K. (1960). Toxic water bloom in Saskatchewan. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 83, 1151-1154. Dionisio Pires, L. M. and Van Donk, E. (2002). Comparing grazing by Dreissena polymorpha on phytoplankton in the presence of toxic and nontoxic cyanobacteria. Freshw. Biol. 47, 1855-1865. Dionisio Pires, L. M., Kusserow, R. and Van Donk, E. (2003). Influence of toxic and non-toxic phytoplankton on feeding and survival of Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) larvae. Hydrobiologia 491, 193-200. Dionisio Pires, L. M., Jonker, R. R., Van Donk, E. and Laanbroek, H. J. (2004). Selective grazing by adults and larvae of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha): application of flow cytometry to natural seston. Freshw. Biol. 49, 116-126. Falconer, I. R. (1991). Tumor promotion and liver-injury caused by oral consumption of cyanobacteria. Environ. Toxicol. Water Qual. 6, 177-184. Horgan, M. J. and Mills, E. L. (1997). Clearance rates and filtering activity of zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha): Implications for freshwater lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 54, 249-255. Imanishi, S., Kato, H., Mizuno, M., Tsuji, K. and Harada, K. (2005). Bacterial degradation of microcystins and nodularin. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 18, 591-598. Lampert, W. (1981). Inhibitory and toxic effects of blue-green algae on daphnia. Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. 66, 285-298. Lawton, L. A., Edwards, C. and Codd, G. A. (1994). Extraction and high-

performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of microcystins in raw and treated waters. Analyst 119, 1525-1530. Morton, B. (1969). Studies on the biology of Dreissena polymorpha Pall. II. Correlation of the rhythms of adductor activity, feeding, digestion and excretion. Proc. Malacol. Soc. Lond. 38, 401-414. Mur, L. R., Skulberg, O. M. and Utkilen, H. (1999). Cyanobacteria in the environment. In Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management (ed. I. Chorus and J. Bartram), pp. 15-40. London: E and FN Spon. Nicholls, K. H., Heintsch, L. and Carney, E. (2002). Univariate step-trend and Multivariate assessments of the apparent effects of P loading reductions and zebra mussels on the phytoplankton of the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario. J. Great Lakes Res. 28, 15-31. Ortea, P. M., Allis, O., Healy, B. M., Lehane, M., Ni Shuilleabhain, A., Furey, A. and James, K. J. (2004). Determination of toxic cyclic heptapeptides by liquid chromatography with detection using ultra-violet, protein phosphatase assay and tandem mass spectrometry. Chemosphere 55, 1395-1402. Raikow, D. F., Sarnelle, O., Wilson, A. E. and Hamilton, S. K. (2004). Dominance of the noxious cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa in lownutrient lakes is associated with exotic zebra mussels. Limnol. Oceanogr. 49, 482-487. Reeders, H. H., Bij De Vaate, A. and Slim, F. J. (1989). The filtration rate of Dreissena-Polymorpha (Bivalvia) in 3 Dutch lakes with reference to biological water-quality management. Freshw. Biol. 22, 133-141. Roditi, H. A., Caraco, N. F., Cole, J. J. and Strayer, D. L. (1996). Filtration of Hudson River water by the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha). Estuaries 19, 824-832. Sivonen, K. and Jones, G. (1999). Cyanobacterial toxins. In Toxic Cyanobacteria In Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management (ed. I. Chorus and J. Bartram), pp. 41-111. London: E and FN Spon. Sprung, M. (1987). Ecological requirements of developing Dreissena polymorpha eggs. Arch. Hydrobiol. 79, S69-S86. Strayer, D. L., Caraco, N. F., Cole, J. J., Findlay, S. and Pace, M. L. (1999). Transformation of freshwater ecosystems by bivalves – A case study of zebra mussels in the Hudson River. Bioscience 49, 19-27. Vanderploeg, H. A., Johengen, T. A., Strickler, J. R., Liebig, J. R. and Nalepa, T. F. (1996). Zebra mussels may be promoting Microcystis blooms in Saginaw Bay and Lake Erie. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 13, 181-182. Vanderploeg, H. A., Liebig, J. R., Carmichael, W. W., Agy, M. A., Johengen, T. H., Fahnenstiel, G. L. and Nalepa, T. F. (2001). Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) selective filtration promoted toxic Microcystis blooms in Saginaw Bay (Lake Huron) and Lake Erie. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58, 1208-1221. World Health Organisation (2003). Cyanobacterial toxins: microcystin-LR in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. Geneva: World Health Organisation (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/57).

THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

Lihat lebih banyak...

Comentários

Copyright © 2017 DADOSPDF Inc.