Rigveda is a narrative of Bhāratam Janam, \'metalcaster folk\'; Indus Script Corpora, a compendium of metalwork catalogues

July 19, 2017 | Autor: Srini Kalyanaraman | Categoria: History, Philosophy, Southeast Asian Studies, Languages and Linguistics, Ancient Near East
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Rigveda is a narrative of Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk'; Indus Script Corpora, a compendium of metalwork catalogues I suggest that the reference to bharatas and Bhāratam Janam in Rigveda make the entire samhitā a narrative documentation of the life-activities of Bharatas who were PUrus. One group preserved the documentation in chandas prosody while another group created written documentations using rebus-metonymy cipher creating mlecchita vikalpa. Metalworkers and metalcasters who were mlecchavācas documented their metalwork catalogues which constitute the Indus Script Corpora. In Rigveda, Visvamitra is stated to be requesting the rivers Vipasa (Beas) and Sutudri (Sutlej) to allow passage for his people, the Bharatas (RV 3.33.11). (Bhishma's Study of Indian History and Culture by S.D. Kulkarni, Shri Bhagwan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira, Thane, Mumbai. Volume I: Beginnings of Life, Culture and History, 1988. p.117). Rishi Somahuti Bhargava Devata: Agni आ (RV 2.7.1) Trans. Youngest (of the gods), Agni descendant of Bha_rata, granter of dwellings, bring (to us) excellent, splendid and enviable riches. [Descendant of Bha_rata: Bha_rata = sprung from the priests; bharata = r.tvija, produced by their rubbing the sticks together].

आ (RV 2.7.5) Youngest (of the gods), Agni descendant of Bha_rata, granter of dwellings, bring (to us) excellent, splendid and enviable riches. [Descendant of Bha_rata: Bha_rata = sprung from the priests; bharata = r.tvija, produced by their rubbing the sticks together].

आ आ (RV 2.36.2) Trans.Maruts, together worshipped with sacrifices, standing in the car drawn by spotted mares, radiant with lances, and delighted by ornaments, sons of Bharata, leaders in the firmament, seated on the sacred grass, drink the Soma presented by the Pota_. [Sons of Bharata: bharatasya su_navah, the first is said to be a name of Rudra, as the cherisher or sovereign, bharta_, of the world]. Rishi Visvamitra Gathina Devata: Nadya



(RV 3.33.11) 1

Trans. Vis'vamitra speaks: (Since), rivers, (you have allowed me to cross), so may the Bharatas pass over (your united stream); may the troop desiring to cross the water, permitted (by you), and impelled by Indra, pass; then let the course appointed for your going (be resumed); I have recourse to the favour of you who are worthy of adoration. [The Bharatas: said to be the same lineage as Vis'va_mitra's: bharatakulaja_ madiya_h sarve; perhaps this means, those who were the bearers of Vis'va_mitra's goods and chattels; Maha_bha_rata, A_di Parva 5.3734 cites Vasis.t.ha as the family priest of the Bharatas]. Rishi Visvamitra Gathina Devata: Gayatri

(RV 3.53.12) Trans. I have made Indra glorified by these two, heaven and earth, and this prayer of Vis'va_mitra protects the kula of Bharata. [Made Indra glorified: indram atus.t.avam-- the verb is the third preterite of the casual, I have caused to be praised; it may mean: I praise Indra, abiding between heaven and earth, i.e. in the firmament]. Rishi: Vamadeva Gautama. Devata: Indra

(RV 4.25.4) Trans. May Agni, the bearer of oblations, grant him felicity, and long behold the rising sun (in the dwelling of him) who says, let us offer libations to Indra, leader (of rites) the friend of man, the chief leader among leaders. [And long behold the rising sun: i.e., may the sacred fire long be hindled in the house of the sacrificer at the hour of sunrise]. Rishi Syaavaasva atreya; Devata: Marudgana थ थ (RV 5.54.14) Trans. You bestow, Maruts, wealth and enviable posterity; you protect the sage learned in the Sa_ma; you grant horses and food to (me) the ministrant priest; you render a prince prosperous. [The sage learned in the Sa_ma: sa_mavipram = samna_m vividha_m prerayita_ram, the prompt or instigator, in various ways, of the Sa_ma hymns]. Rishi Bharadvaja Barhaspatya; devata: Agni

(RV 6.16.4) Trans. Bharata, with the presenters of the oblation, has joyfully praised you in your (two-fold capacity), and has worshipped you, the adorable, with sacrifices. (Bharata Raja, the son of Dushyanta; in your two-fold capacity: in the character of bestowing what is wished for and removing what is undesired; ishta praaptyanishta parihaararupenaagnir dvidhaa). 2

आ (RV 6.16.19) Trans. Agni, the bearer, (of oblations), the destroyer of the enemies of Divodaasa, the cognizant of many, the protector of the good, has been brought hither (by our praises). dasyu and dāsa are Rigveda words which can be interpreted in the context of two cognate words: dahyu and dahae (Old Indo-Iranian). Parni is a dahae tribe; cognate Pani are merchants in Rigveda. In the battle of the Ten Kings (Dasarajna) in the Rig Veda the king SudAsa calls his enemies "Dasyu" which included Vedic peoples like the Anu, Druhyu, Turvasha, and even Puru. (RV 7.6, 12-14, 18). A Dasa Balbutha Taruksa is also mentioned in RV 6.45.31, as a patron of a seer, and distinguished by his generosity (RV 8.46.32). There are several hymns in the Rig Veda that refer to the Dasa and Arya as enemies [1] and to related (jami) and unrelated (ajami) enemies (e.g. 1.111.3, 4.4.5); still, in the battle of the ten kings, there are Dasas and Aryas on both sides of the battlefield and in some Rigvedic verses, the Aryas and Dasas stood united against their enemies. RV 6.33.3, 7.83.1, 8.51.9, 10.102.3; Ambedkar, 1946, Who were the Shudras? Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes the Dasa-Dasyus as a-karman (non-performers of Aryan sacrifices), anya-vrata (observers of other rites) and in Rig Veda 10.105.8 they are described as anrc (nonsinger of laudatory hymns). In RV 8.70.11 they are described as a-deva-yu (not regarding Deva ). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasa Krishna too is described as an Asura and this does not mean make him an anarya. (RV III. 85. 13-15). Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda. These metaphors are not unlike the reference to Krishna as an Asura. Asura does NOT denote anarya status. Thus, Asura, Dasa and Dasyu can also be included in the term, Bhāratam Janam. So, it would be incorrect to declare dasyu to be non-Aryan. In the context of the reference in Manu, the terms dasyu and dāsa as a reference to people may relate to those whose mispronounciations of Indian sprachbund glosses were referred to as mlecchavācas 'mleccha or meluhha speech'. (Arya vAcas mleccha vAcas te sarve dasyuvah smrtAh ~ Manusmriti 10.45 Trans. both aarya speakers and mleccha speakers are all remembered as dasyu) Thus, I suggest that dasyu and dāsa together with Anus, Yadus, TurvaSas, Druhyus, should be grouped as mlecchavācas as contrasted with āryavācas depoying grammatically correct chandas pronunciation. "...Ganga, on the lower reaches of which were the kingdoms of Anga, Variga, and Kalinga, regarded in the Mahabharata as Mleccha. Now the non- Aryan people that today live closest to the territory formerly occupied by these ancient kingdoms are Tibeto-Burmans of the Baric branch. One of the languages of that branch is called Mech, a term given to them by their Hindu 3

neighbors. The Mech live partly in Bengal and partly in Assam. B(runo) Lieblich remarked the resemblance between Mleccha and Mech and that Skr. Mleccha normally became Prākṛit Meccha or Mecha and that the last form is actually found in Sauraseni. 1 Sten Konow thought Mech probably a corruption of Mleccha.* I do not believe that the people of the ancient kingdoms of Anga, Vanga, and Kalinga were precisely of the same stock as the modern Mech, but rather that they and the modern Mech spoke languages of the Baric division of Sino-Tibetan. " (Robert Shafer, 1954, Ethnography of Ancient India, Otto Harras Sowitz, Wiesbaden). http://archive.org/stream/ethnographyofanc033514mbp/ethnographyofanc033514mbp_djvu.txt "Already in 1912 the Old Persian ethnonym Daha- (Gk. Daoi, Daai; Lat. Dahae) had been connected by Sten Konow with Khotanese daha- 'man, male', an etymology that is all the more plausible as it is common throughout the world for nations to designate themselves with the words meaning 'man' in their respective lanuages...The ancient Indians also knew of a people called *Dasa- (attestedd only in adjectival daasa-), depicted in the Rigveda as enemies of the Arya-. The same root is also apparent in Avestan daxuu-, Old Persian dahyu- (dahayu-) 'province' (i.e., '(mass of) people'; cf. Sanskrit. dasyu- '(hostile) people, demons'), and perhaps also Avestan azi-dahaaka- 'manlike serpent'." (Daha, the name, the people in: Encyclopaedia Iranica http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dahae ) In reference to defects in speech, asura are equated with mleccha. Asura is a term denoting power, divinity and even Vedic River Sarasvati is described as āsuri; so is Varuṇa, an asura. थ śatapatha brāhmaṇa, a Rigvedic text, refers to Asura deprived of speech who cried 'he'lava he'lavo'. Asuras say he'lavo (= he'rayo, 'ho, enemies,' in Samskritam) (SBr iii.2.1.23-24). This refrain is relatable to boatmen songs of ancient times with the refrain 'elo, elelo'. Such an interpretation is valid in the context of Meluhha seafaring merchants attested in Ancient Near East as a contact area of the Meluhha or Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu) civilization. On the semantics of the word asura, Marcos Albino shows that Vedic asūrta- is an extended exocentric compound based on svar/sur 'sun', that it is not a negative formation with the 'possessive' suffix -ta. (Marcos Albino, 2013, Vedic asūrta-, sūrta-, asūryá-, asūrá- in: EJVS, Vol. 20, Issue 2). The association of asura with worship of the sun is consistent with the Mesopotamian records showing assur as sun-worshippers. Both asur and assur are metalworkers. Both are bhāratam janam mentioned in Rigveda (RV 3.53.1: viśvāmitrasya rakṣati brahmedam bhāratam janam). bharata = casting metals in moulds; bharavum = to fill in; to put in; to pour into (Gujarati) Bengali. [ bharana ] n an inferior metal obtained from pewter (Punjabi) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. (Marathi) I suggest that Mleccha/Meluhha are 'copper' workers, and are also referred to by the synonym phrase: bhāratam janam 'metalcaster folk' in the Rigveda. The word ayas 'metal alloy' mentioned in the Rigveda is also attested in Indus script corpora by the hieroglyph: ayo 'fish' Rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati); ayas 'alloy metal' (Rigveda).

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Hieroglyph: baradh (Bhojpuri) 'bullock' Rebus:

[ bharata ] n A factitious metal [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ ] n A vessel made of

compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. the metal (Gujarati)

.

[ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal

.(Marathi) Bharatiyo 'metal caster'

balivárda (balīv° ŚBr.) m. ʻ ox, bull ʼ TBr., balivanda- m. Kāṭh., barivarda -- m. lex. [Poss. a cmpd. of balín -- (cf. *balilla -- ) and a non -- Aryan word for ʻ ox ʼ (cf. esp. Nahālī baddīand poss. IA. forms like Sik. pāḍō ʻ bull < *pāḍḍa -- : EWA ii 419 with lit.)]Pa. balivadda -- m. ʻ ox ʼ, Pk. bal vadda -- , balidda -- , baladda -- m. (cf. balaya -- m. < *balaka -- ?); L. baledā, mult. baled m. ʻ herd of bullocks ʼ (→ S. ḇaledo m.); P. bald, baldh, balhd m. ʻ ox ʼ, baled,baledā m. ʻ herd of oxen ʼ, ludh. bahld, balēd m. ʻ ox ʼ; Ku. balad m. ʻ ox ʼ, gng. bald, N. (Tarai) barad, A. balad(h), B. balad, Or. baḷada, Bi. barad(h), Mth. barad (hyper -hindiism baṛad), Bhoj. baradh, Aw.lakh. bardhu,H. balad, barad(h), bardhā m. (whence baladnā ʻ to bull a cow ʼ), G. baḷad m.[Cf. Ap. valivaṇḍa -- ʻ mighty ʼ, OP. balavaṇḍā]: WPah.kc. bɔḷəd m., kṭg. bɔḷd m. (LNH 30 b ḷd), J. bald m., Garh. baḷda ʻ bullock ʼ.(CDIAL 9176). 9177 balivardin m. ʻ *oxherd ʼ (nom. prop. Kāś.). P. baledī m. ʻ oxherd ʼ; Ku. baldiyā ʻ cattle -- dealer ʼ; H. baredī m. ʻ herdsman ʼ(CDIAL 9177). Both mlecchavācas and āryavācas constitute Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk'. S. Kalyanaraman Sarasvati Research Center May 21, 2015 References to bharatas in Rigveda, Atharva Veda, Samaveda, Krishna Yajurveda: rvs.2.7

1. VASU, thou most youthful God, Bharata, Agni, bring us wealth,

rvs.2.7

5 Ours art thou, Agni, Bharata, honoured by us with barren cows,

rvs.2.36

Sitting on sacred grass, ye Sons of Bharata, drink Soma from the Potars' bowl, O Men of heaven.

rvs.3.33 rvs.3.53

11 Visvamitra speaks: rivers, so may the Bharatas pass over (your united stream)...

24 These men, the sons of Bharata, O Indra, regard not severance or close connexion.

rvs.4.25

4 To him shall Agni Bharata give shelter: long shall he look upon the Sun uprising-,

rvs.5.54

14 Ye give the Bharata as his strength, a charger, and ye bestow a king who quickly

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listens. rvs.6.16

4 Thee, too, hath Bharata of old, with mighty men, implored for bliss.

rvs.6.16

19 Agni, the Bharata, hath been sought, the Vrtraslayer-, marked of all,

avs.20.67

upon your way with ornaments, yea, our friends, Sitting on sacred grass, ye sons of Bharata, drink Soma from the Potar s bowl, OMen of heaven.

svs.2.3.1

With oil upon his face. with high heaven touching flame, he shineth splendidly, pure, for the Bharatas.

svs.2.6.2

3. O Agni of the Bharatas, flame splendid with unfading might

yvk.1.3

i O Agni, of the Bharatas, youngest, Bear to us excellent, glorious wealth,

yvk.1.8

d This is your king, O Bharatas; Soma is the king of us Brahmans.

yvk.1.8

h This is your king, O Bharatas; Soma is the king of us Brahmans.

yvk.4.4

g He hath been born as guardian of men, wakeful, Agni, skilful, for fresh prosperity; Ghee faced, with mighty sky reaching (blaze) He shineth gloriously, pure for the Bharatas.

SG Talageri has effectively demonstrated that the Rigveda is substantively a reference to Bharatas as Vedic Aryans. The following narratives are excerpted from his work. (Talageri, Shrikant G., 2008, The Rigveda and the Avesta : the final evidence, New Delhi, Aditya Prakashan; Talageri, SG, 2000, The Rigveda, A Historical Analysis, New Delhi, Aditya Prakashan) Seven primary families of RSis: ANgirases, BhRgus, ViSvAmitras, VasiSThas, Agastyas, KaSyapas, Atris Two secondary families of RSis: Kevala-ANgirases (KaNvas in the Rigveda) and Kevala-BhRgus (GRtsamadas in the Rigveda).

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Tenth family: Bharatas. A Goddess in Apri-sUktas is Bharati. The othr Goddesses are ILA, SarasvatI (I.142.9; X.110.8; III.4.8; VII.2.8; I.188.9) Atris and KaNVas replace the name BhAratI with MahI (V.5.8; I.13.9). BhRgus of the Rigveda are clearly members of one single branch descended from Jamadagni, or of groups later adopted into this branch. Jamadagni's mother is the sister of ViSvAmitra who belongs to a branch of PUrus who also call themselves Bharatas. BhRgus (AtharvaNa, Dadhyanc and USanA KAvya who are referred to in 39 verses of Rigveda) introduce the fire ritual. The three Rishis have a role in bringing down fire from the heavens to the earth. The thunderbolt of lightning is said to made of he bones of Dadhyanc (I.84.13). UsanA is said to have made this bolt for Indra (I.51.10, 11; 121.12; V.34.2) Sukhtankar notes that BhRgus were responsible for the final development and shaping of the MahAbhArata (The BhRgus and the BhArata, Annals of the Bhandarkar Research Institute, Pune XVIII, pp. 1-76). ParaSu RAma, son of Jamadagni is a BhRgu and recognised as an avatAra of ViSNu. BhRgus and Sukra are the priests of Asuras. SudAs fought the battle of ten kings on the ParuSHNi, central Punjab. SudAs's priest was VasiSTha whose prdecessor was ViSvAmitra. Under the priesthood of ViSvAmitra, SudAs fought a battle with the KIkaTas of Bihar. Rigveda cites an alliance between the Bharatas (led by SRnjaya) and the Anus (led by AbhyAvartin CAyamAna) against the Yadus and TurvaSas who were attacking KurukSetra (HariyUpIyA = DRSadvatI) from the south (RV VI.27) Anus were conquered by SudAs (VII.18.13), a Bharata; Anus started migrating westwards. grAma in RV III.33.11 refers to the warrior troops of Bharatas who cross the SutudrI and vipAS in their expedition westwards. SuSoma/SuSomA, Arjika/ArjikIyA, SaryaNAvat and MUjavat are four northwestern areas associated with Soma (RV I.84.14; VIII.6.39; 7.29; 64.11; IX.65.22, 23; 113.1, 2; X.34.1, 75.5). MUJavat is mentioned in Avesta as MuZA (Yt. 8.125). Even Atris and KaNvas had affiliations with other Bharata or PUru RSis: According to the VAyu PurANa (1.59), the earliest Atri RSi was PrabhAkara, who married the ten daughters of a PUru king BhadrASva or RaudrASva, and had ten sons from whom all the Atri clans are descended. As for the KaNvas, all the authorities agree that they were an offshoot from the Paurava line. Among the Atris, SyAvASva Atreya is closely associated with the PUrus: according to SAyaNa s interpretation of V.54.14, SyAvASva was himself a Bharata. He is also the only Atri to pay homage to the memory of SudAs (V.53.2). Among the KaNvas, PragAtha KANva and Sobhari KANva are closely associated with the PUrus: PragAtha identifies himself as a PUru directly in VIII.64.10, and also indirectly in VIII.10.5 (where he asks the ASvins to abandon the other four tribes, who are named, and come to the PUrus, who are not directly named). Sobhari is the only KaNva RSi to pay homage to the memory of DivodAsa (VIII.103.2) and to call him an Arya. Sobhari KANva and SyAvASva Atreya are also two RSis associated (VIII.19.32, 36; 36.7; 37.7) with Trasadasyu, whose importance in the Rigveda is due to the help given by him to the PUrus. Rigveda refers to IkSvAku as a name of the Sun (X.60.4)

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Two main streams of ancient people were: Solar race IkSvAkus and Lunar race, AiLas. IkSvAkus had a branch called TRkSis (Trasadasyu's son is a TRKSi -- RV VIII.22.7). AiLas had five branches: Yadus, TurvaSas, Druhyus, Anu and PUrus. References: a. I.108.8: Yadus, TurvaSas, Druhyus, Anus, PUrus. b. VIII.10.5: Yadus, TurvaSas, Druhyus, Anus. c. VI.46.8: Druhyus, PUrus, (and TRkSis). d. VIII.4.1: Anus, TurvaSas. e. I.47.7: TurvaSas. Anus: V.31.4 (Anus (BhRgus) are described as manufacturing a chariot for Indra. In IV.16.20 BhRgus manufacture a chariot for Indra); VI. 62.9; VII. 18.13, 14; VIII. 74.4. (Refers to PUru king Srutarvan, son of RkSa; Agni of the Anus indicates reference to BhRgus who introduced fire worship). Druhyus: VII. 18.6, 12, 14. Yadus and TurvaSas: I. 36.18; 54.6; 174.9; IV. 30.17; V. 31.8; VI. 20.12; 45.1; VII. 19.8; VIII. 4.7; 7.18; 9.14; 45.27; IX. 61.2; X. 49.8; 62.10. Yadus: VIII. 1.31;6.46, 48. TurvaSas: VI. 27.7; VII. 18.6; VIII. 4.19. Yadus and TurvaSas are described as coming from afar (I.36.18; VI.45.1), from the further bank (V.31.8) and over the sea (VI.20.12). Some of the verses refer to the Gods bringing them across flooded rivers (I.174.9; IV.30.17). Indra is credited with bringing the Yadus and TurvaSas safely over flooded rivers: I.174.9; IV.30.17; V.31.8; VI.20.12; 45.1. These may be references to Meluhha/Mleccha.

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DevavAta is a descendant of an ancient king, Bharata who ruled in the Ganga-Yamuna doab. F.E. Pargiter noted that the bulk of Rigveda was composed by the successors of king Bharata. (Pargiter, FE, 1962, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi-VaranasiPatna, p.275). The Bharatas are a branch of PUrus.Both DivodAsa (I.130.7) and SudAs (I.63.7) are called PUrus. A Bharata composer Parucchepa DaivodAsI repeatedly speaks as a PUru (I.129.5; 131.4). The Bharata kings of Rigveda are: DevavAta, SRnjaya, VadhryaSva, DivodAsa, Pratardana, Pijavana, DevaSravas, SudAs, Sahadeva, Somaka. Bharatas are referred to in the following verses: I. 96.3; II. 7.1, 5; 36.2; III. 23.2; 33.11, 12; 53.12, 24; IV. 25.4; V. 11.1; 54.14; VI.16.19, 45; VII.8.4; 33.6. Rigveda is a chronicle of Bhāratam Janam. This is deduced from the following: a. In many verses, even Gods are referred to as Bharatas: Agni in I.96.3; II.7.1, 5; IV.25.4, and VI.16.9; and the Maruts in II.36.2. b. In other verses, Agni is described as belonging to the Bharatas: III.23.2; V.11.1; VI.16.45; VII.8.4. c. In the other references to the Bharatas (III.33.11, 12; 53.12, 24; V.54.14; VII.33.6) it is clear that they are the unqualified heroes of the hymns. Bharatas were PUrus. in VIII.64.10 PUrus are equated with mankind : PUrave mAnave jane. VII.8.4; 18.3 refer to conflict between the Bharatas and the other PUrus. In VII.8.4. Bharata s Agni is described as conquering the PUrus in battle. In VII.18.3, VasiSTha, speaking on behalf of the Bharata king SudAs, addresses Indra with the plea: May we, in sacrifice, conquer (the) scornful PUru(s). PUrus are mentioned in: I.59.6; 63.7; 129.5; 130.7; 131.4; IV.21.10; 38.1, 3; 39.2; V.17.1; VI.20.10; VII.5.3; 8.4; 18.13; 19.3; 96.2; VIII.64.10; X.4.1; 48.5. The references make it very clear that the PUrus are being referred to in a first-person sense:

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a. The Vedic Gods are clearly identified as the Gods of the PUrus: Agni is described as a fountain to the PUrus (X.4.1), a priest who drives away the sins of the PUrus (I.129.5), the Hero who is worshipped by the PUrus (1.59.6), the protector of the sacrifices of the PUrus (V.17.1), and the destroyer of enemy castles for the PUrus (VII.5.3). Mitra and Varuna are described as affording special aid in battle and war to the PUrus, in the form of powerful allies and mighty steeds (IV.38.1, 3; 39.2). Indra is identified as the God to whom the PUrus sacrifice in order to gain new favours (VI.20.10), and for whom the PUrus shed Soma (VIII.64.10). Indra gives freedom to the PUrus by slaying VRtra (IV.21.10), helps the PUrus in battle (VII.19.3), and breaks down enemy castles for the PUrus (I.63.7; 130.7; 131.4). Indra even speaks to the PUrus and asks them to sacrifice to him alone, promising in return his friendship, protection and generosity (X.48.5.) In VII.96.2, the SarasvatI was named a PUru river, and it flowed through PUru lands. The river is addressed with the words: The PUrus dwell, Beauteous One, on thy two grassy banks. Some other names of kings in the Rigveda who appear in the Puranic lists as PUru kings (some belonging to the Bharata dynasty of DevavAta, and some not) are: AjamILha (IV.44.6). Dhvasra/Dhvasanti and PuruSanti (I.112.23; IX.58.3). (SuSanti and PurujAti of the Puranic lists.) Mudgala (X.102.2, 5, 6, 9). RkSa (VIII.68.15, 16; 74.4, 13). Srutarvan (VIII.74.4, 13; X.49.5). Vidathin (IV.16.13; V.29.11). Santanu (X.98.1, 3, 7). KuSika (III.26.1). Other Veda SaMhitAs also refer to the following prominent PUru kings: BhImasena of KASI (Yajurveda, KAThaka SaMhitA, VII.1.8) ParIkSita I (Atharvaveda, XX.127.7-10) PratIpa (Atharvaveda, XX.129.2) VicitravIrya (Yajurveda, KAThaka SaMhitA, X.6) DhRtarASTra (Yajurveda, KAThaka SaMhitA, X.6) Vishnu Purana has 30 references to Bharata: vp.2.1 Descendants of Priyavrata, the eldest son of Swayambhuva Manu: his ten sons: three adopt a religious life; the others become kings of the seven Dwipas, or isles, of the earth. Agnidhra, king of Jambudwipa, divides it into nine portions, which he distributes amongst his 10

sons. Nabhi, king of the south, succeeded by Rishabha; and he byBharata: India named after him Bharata: his descendants reign during the Swayambhuva Manwantara. vp.2.1 Nabhi, who had for his portion the country of Himahwa, had by his queen Meru the magnanimous Rishabha; and he had a hundred sons, the eldest of whom was Bharata. Rishabha having ruled with equity and wisdom, and celebrated many sacrificial rites, resigned the sovereignty of the earth to the heroic Bharata, and, retiring to the hermitage of Pulastya, adopted the life of an anchoret, practising religious penance, and performing all prescribed ceremonies, until, emaciated by his austerities, so as to be but a collection of skin and fibres, he put a pebble in his mouth, and naked went the way of all flesh 7. The country was vp.2.1 termed Bharata from the time that it was relinquished to Bharata by his father, on his retiring to the woods 8. vp.2.1 Bharata, having religiously discharged the duties of his station, consigned the kingdom to his son Sumati, a most virtuous prince; and, engaging in devout practices, abandoned his life at the holy place, salagrama: he was afterwards born again as a Brahman, in a distinguished family of ascetics. I shall hereafter relate to you his history. vp.2.1 [paragraph continues] Pratihartta: his son was Bhava, who begotUdgitha, who begot Prastara; whose son was Prithu. The son ofPrithu was Nakta: his son was Gaya: his son was Nara; whose son was Virat. The valiant son of Virat was Dhimat, who begot Mahanta; whose son was Manasyu; whose son was Twashtri: his son wasViraja: his son was Raja: his son was satajit, who had a hundred sons, of whom Viswagjyotish was the eldest 9. Under these princes,Bharata varsha (India) was divided into nine portions (to be hereafter particularized); and their descendants successively held possession of the country for seventy one periods of the aggregate of the four ages (or for the reign of a Manu). vp.2.2 The boundary mountains (of the earth) are Himavan, Hemakuta, andNishadha, which lie south of Meru; and Nila, sweta, and sringi, which are situated to the north of it. The two central ranges (those next to Meru, or Nishadha and Nila) extend for a hundred thousandYojanas(, running east and west). Each of the others diminishes ten thousand Yojanas, as it lies more remote from the centre. They are two thousand Yojanas in height, and as many in breadth 3. TheVarshas or countries between these ranges are Bharata (India), south of the Himavan mountains; vp.2.2 next Kimpurusha, between Himavan and Hemakuta; north of the latter, and south of Nishadha, is Harivarsha; north of Meru isRamyaka, extending from the Nila or blue mountains to the sweta (or white) mountains; Hiranmaya lies between the sweta and sringi ranges; and Uttarakuru is beyond the latter, following the same direction as Bharata 4. Each of these is nine thousand Yojanas in extent. Ilavrita is of similar dimensions, but in the centre of it is the golden mountain Meru, and the country extends nine thousandYojanas in each direction from the four sides of the mountain 5. There are four mountains in this Varsha, formed as buttresses toMeru, each ten thousand Yojanas in elevation: that on the east is called Mandara; that on the south, Gandhamadana; that on the west, Vipula; and that on the north, Suparswa 6: on each of these stands severally a Kadamba tree, a Jambu tree, a Pipal, and a Vata7; each spreading over eleven hundred Yojanas, and towering aloft like banners on the mountains. From the Jambu tree the insular continent Jambu dwipa derives its appellations. The apples of that tree are as large as elephants: when they are rotten, they fall upon the crest of the mountain, and from their expressed juice is formed the Jambu river, the waters of which are drunk by the inhabitants; and in consequence of drinking of that stream, they pass their days in content and health, being subject neither to perspiration, to foul odours, to decrepitude, nor organic decay. The soil 11

vp.2.2 is enclosed by the river Ganges, which, issuing from the foot ofVishnu, and washing the lunar orb, falls here from the skies 11, and, after encircling the city, divides into four mighty rivers, flowing in opposite directions. These rivers are the sita, the Alakananda, theChakshu, and the Bhadra. The first, falling upon the tops of the inferior mountains, on the east side of Meru, flows over their crests, and passes through the country of Bhadraswa to the ocean: theAlakananda flows south, to the country of Bharata, and, dividing into seven rivers on the way, falls into the sea: the Chakshu falls into the sea, after traversing all the western mountains, and passing through the country of Ketumala: and the vp.2.2 Meru, then, is confined between the mountains Nila and Nishadha(on the north and south), and between Malyavan andGandhamadana (on the west and east 13): it lies between them like the pericarp of a lotus. The countries of Bharata, Ketumala,Bhadraswa, and Uttarakuru lie, like leaves of the lotus of the world, exterior to the boundary mountains. Jathara and Devakuta are two mountain ranges, running north and south, and connecting the two chains of Nishadha and Nila. Gandhamadana vp.2.2 In the country of Bhadraswa, Vishnu resides as Hayasira (the horse headed); in Ketumala, as Varaha (the boar); in Bharata, as the tortoise Kurma(); in Kuru, as the fish Matsya(); in his universal form, every where; for Hari pervades all places: he, Maitreya, is the supporter of all things; he is all things. In the eight realms ofKimpurusha and the rest (or all exclusive of Bharata) there is no sorrow, nor weariness, nor anxiety, nor hunger, nor apprehension; their inhabitants are exempt from all infirmity and pain, and live in uninterrupted enjoyment for ten or twelve thousand years. Indranever sends rain upon them, for the earth abounds with water. In those places there is no distinction of Krita, Treta, or any succession of ages. In each of these Varshas there are respectively seven principal ranges of mountains, from which, oh best of Brahmans, hundreds of rivers take their rise. vp.2.3 Description of Bharata varsha: extent: chief mountains: nine divisions: principal rivers and mountains of Bharata proper: principal nations: superiority over other Varshas, especially as the seat of religious acts. (Topographical lists.) vp.2.3 THE country that lies north of the ocean, and south of the snowy mountains, is called Bharata, for there dwelt the descendants ofBharata. It is nine thousand leagues in extent 1, and is the land of works, in consequence of which men go to heaven, or obtain emancipation. vp.2.3 The seven main chains of mountains in Bharata are Mahendra,Malaya, Sahya, suktimat, Riksha, Vindhya, and Paripatra 2. vp.2.3 The Varsha of Bharata is divided into nine portions, which I will name to you; they are Indra dwipa, Kaserumat, Tamravarna,Gabhastimat, Naga dwipa, Saumya, Gandharba, and Varuna; the last or ninth Dwipa is surrounded by the ocean, and is a thousandYojanas from north to south 3. vp.2.3 On the east of Bharata dwell the Kiratas (the barbarians); on the west, the Yavanas; in the centre reside Brahmans, Kshetriyas,Vaisyas, and sudras, occupied in their respective duties of sacrifice, arms, trade, and service 4. vp.2.3 The principal nations of Bharata are the Kurus and Panchalas, in the middle districts: the people of Kamarupa, in the east: the Pundras, vp.2.3 In the Bharata varsha it is that the succession of four Yugas, or ages, the Krita, the Treta, the Dwapara, and Kali, takes place; that pious ascetics engage in rigorous penance; that devout men offer sacrifices; and that gifts are distributed; all for the sake of another world. In Jambu dwipa, Vishnu, consisting of sacrifice, is worshipped, as the male of sacrificial rites, with sacrificial ceremonies: he is adored under other forms elsewhere. Bharata is therefore the best of 12

the divisions of Jambu dwipa, because it is the land of works: the others are places of enjoyment alone. It is only after many thousand births, and the aggregation of much merit, that living beings are sometimes born in Bharata as men. The gods themselves exclaim, "Happy are those who are born, even from the condition of gods, as men in Bharata varsha, as that is the way to the pleasures of Paradise, or the greater blessing of final liberation. Happy are they who, consigning all the unheeded rewards of their acts to the supreme and eternal Vishnu, obtain existence in that land of works, as their path to him. We know not, when the acts that have obtained us heaven shall have been fully recompensed 7, where we shall renew corporeal confinement; but we know that those men are fortunate who are born with perfect faculties 8 inBharata varsha." vp.2.3 Sanjaya speaks to Dhritarashtra. Hear me, monarch, in reply to your inquiries, detail to you the particulars of the country of Bharata. vp.2.3 universal mothers, productive of abundance, besides hundreds of inferior note, are the rivers of Bharata, according to remembrance 80. vp.2.3 Next hear from me, descendant of Bharata, the names of the inhabitants of the different countries, They are the Kurus, Panchalas1, salwas, Madreyas, and dwellers in thickets Jangalas(), surasenas 2, Kalingas 3, Bodhas 4, Malas 5, Matsyas 6, Sukutyas 7, Sauvalyas8, Kuntalas 9, vp.2.3 [paragraph continues] Vanavas, Darvas, Vatajamarathorajas,Bahubadhas 90, Kauravyas, Sudamas 91, Sumallis, Badhnas,Karishakas, Kulindapatyakas, Vatayanas 92, Dasarnas 93, Romanas94, Kusavindus, Kakshas 95, Gopala kakshas 96, Jangalas 97,Kuruvarnakas 98, Kiratas, Barbaras 99, Siddhas, Vaidehas 100Tamraliptas 101, Audras 102, Paundras 103, dwellers in sandy tracts (saisikatas), and in mountains Parvatiyas(). Moreover, chief of the sons of Bharata, there are the nations of the south, the Draviras104, Keralas 105, Prachyas 106, Mushikas 107, and Vanavasakas108; the Karnatakas 109, Mahishakas 110, Vikalyas 111 andMushakas 112, Jillikas 113, Kuntalas 114, Sauhridas, vp.2.7 Parasara. The sphere of the earth (or Bhur loka), comprehending its oceans, mountains, and rivers, extends as far as it is illuminated by the rays of the sun and moon; and to the same extent, both in diameter and circumference, the sphere of the sky Bhuvar( loka) spreads above it (as far upwards as to the planetary sphere, or Swarloka) 1. The solar orb is situated a hundred thousand leagues from the earth; and that of the moon an equal distance from the sun. At the same interval above the moon occurs the orbit of all the lunar constellations. The planet Budha Mercury() is two hundred thousand leagues above the lunar mansions. sukra Venus() is at the same distance from Mercury. Angaraka Mars() is as far above Venus; and the priest of the gods Vrihaspati(, or Jupiter) as far from Mars: whilst Saturn Sani() is two hundred and fifty thousand leagues beyond Jupiter. The sphere of the seven Rishis Ursa( Major) is a hundred thousand leagues above Saturn; and at a similar height above the seven Rishis is Dhruva (the pole star), the pivot or axis of the whole planetary circle. Such, Maitreya, is the elevation of the three spheres Bhur(, Bhuvar, Swar) which form the region of the consequences of works. The region of works is here (or in the land of Bharata) 2. vp.2.8 The mountain range that lies most to the north (in Bharata varsha) is called sringavan (the horned), from its having three principal elevations (horns or peaks), one to the north, one to the south, and one in the centre; the last is called the equinoctial, for the sun arrives there in the middle of the two seasons of spring and autumn, entering the equinoctial points in the first degree of Aries and ofLibra, and making day and night of equal duration, or fifteenMuhurttas each. When the sun, most excellent sage, is in the first degree of the lunar mansion, Krittika, and the moon is in the. fourth of Visakha, or when the sun is in the third

13

vp.2.13 Legend of Bharata. Bharata abdicates his throne, and becomes an ascetic: cherishes a fawn, and becomes so much attached to it as to neglect his devotions: he dies: his successive births: works in the fields, and is pressed as a palankin bearer for the Raja of Sauvira: rebuked for his awkwardness: his reply: dialogue between him and the king. vp.2.13 Maitreya. Reverend sir 1, all that I asked of you has been thoroughly explained; namely, the situation of the earth, oceans, mountains, rivers, and planetary bodies; the system of the three worlds, of which Vishnu is the stay. The great end of life has also been expounded by you, and the preeminence of holy knowledge. It now remains that you fulfil the promise you made some time since 2, of relating to me the story of king Bharata, and how it happened that a monarch like him, residing constantly at the sacred place salagrama, and engaged in devotion, with his mind ever applied toVasudeva, should have failed, through time sanctity of the shrine, and the efficacy of his abstractions, to obtain final emancipation; how it was that he was born again as a Brahman; and what was done by the magnanimous Bharata in that capacity: all this it is fit that you inform me. vp.2.13 On one occasion he went to the Mahanadi 3, for the purpose of ablution: he bathed there, and performed the ceremonies usual after bathing, Whilst thus occupied, there came to the same place a doe big with young, who had come out of the forest to drink of the stream. Whilst quenching her thirst, there was heard on a sudden the loud and fearful roaring of a lion; on which the doe, being excessively alarmed, jumped out of the water upon the bank. In consequence of this great leap, her fawn was suddenly brought forth, and fell into the river; and the king, seeing it carried away by the current, caught hold of the young animal, and saved it from being drowned. The injury received by the deer, by her violent exertion, proved fatal, and she lay down, and died; which being observed by the royal ascetic, he took the fawn in his arms, and returned with it to his hermitage: there he fed it and tended it every day, and it throve and grew up under his care. It frolicked about the cell, and grazed upon the grass in its vicinity; and whenever it strayed to a distance, and was alarmed at a wild beast, it ran back thither for safety. Every morning it sallied forth from home, and every evening returned to the thatched shelter of the leafy bower ofBharata. vp.2.14 Dialogue continued. Bharata expounds the nature of existence, the end of life, and the identification of individual with universal spirit. vp.2.15 Bharata relates the story of Ribhu and Nidagha. The latter, the pupil of the former, becomes a prince, and is visited by his preceptor, who explains to him the principles of unity, and departs. vp.2.16 Ribhu returns to his disciple, and perfects him in divine knowledge. The same recommended to the Raja by Bharata, who thereupon obtains final liberation. Consequences of hearing this legend. vp.2.16 Parasara resumed. The king, being thus instructed, opened his eyes to truth, and abandoned the notion of distinct existence: whilst theBrahman, who, through the recollection of his former lives, had acquired perfect knowledge, obtained now exemption from future birth. Whoever narrates or listens to the lessons inculcated in the dialogue between Bharata and the king, has his mind enlightened, mistakes not the nature of individuality, and in the course of his migrations becomes fitted for ultimate emancipation. vp.3.6 The four Vedas, the six Angas (or subsidiary portions of the Vedas, viz. siksha, rules of reciting the prayers, the accents and tones to be observed; Kalpa, ritual; Vyakarana, grammar; Nirukta, glossarial comment; Chhandas, metre; and Jyotish, (astronomy), withMimansa (theology), Nyaya (logic), Dharma (the institutes of law), and the Puranas, constitute the fourteen 14

principal branches of knowledge: or they are considered as eighteen, with the addition of these four; the ayur veda, medical science (as taught byDhanwantari); Dhanur veda, the science of archery or arms, taught by Bhrigu; Gandharba veda, or the drama, and the arts of music, dancing, &c., of which the Muni Bharata was the author; and theArtha sastram, or science of government, as laid down first byVrihaspati. vp.4.4 lotus springs became fourfold, as the four sons of Dasaratha, Rama,Lakshmana, Bharata, and satrughna, for the protection of the world.Rama, whilst yet a boy, accompanied Viswamitra, to protect his sacrifice, and slew Tadaka. He afterwards killed Maricha with his resistless shafts; and Subahu and others fell by his arms. He removed the guilt of Ahalya by merely looking upon her. In the palace of Janaka he broke with ease the mighty bow of Maheswara, and received the hand of Sita, the daughter of the king, self born from the earth, as the prize of his prowess. He humbled the pride ofParasurama, who vaunted his triumphs over the race of Haihaya, and his repeated slaughters of the Kshatriya tribe. Obedient to the commands of his father, and cherishing no regret for the loss of sovereignty, he entered the forest, vp.4.4 Bharata made himself master of the country of the Gandharbas, after destroying vast numbers of them; and satrughna having killed the Rakshasa chief Lavana, the son of Madhu, took possession of his capital Mathura. vp.4.4 Having thus, by their unequalled valour and might, rescued the whole world from the dominion of malignant fiends, Rama,Lakshmana, Bharata, and satrughna reascended to heaven, and were followed by those of the people of Kosala who were fervently devoted to these incarnate portions of the supreme Vishnu. vp.4.4 Rama and his brothers had each two sons. Kusa and Lava were the sous of Rama; those of Lakshmana were Angada and Chandraketu; the sons of Bharata were Taksha and Pushkara; and Subahu and surasena 17 were the sons of satrughna. vp.4.11 [paragraph continues] Jayadhwaja 15. The son of the last wasTalajangha, who had a hundred sons, called after him Talajanghas: the eldest of these was Vitihotra; another was Bharata 16, who had two sons, Vrisha and Sujati 17. The son of Vrisha was Madhu 18; he had a hundred sons, the chief of whom was Vrishni, and from him the family obtained the name of Vrishni 19. From the name of their father, Madhu, they were also called Madhavas; whilst from the denomination of their common ancestor Yadu, the whole were termed Yadavas 20. vp.4.19 Descendants of Puru. Birth of Bharata, the son of Dushyanta: his sons killed: adopts Bharadwaja or Vitatha. Hastin, founder ofHastinapura. Sons of Ajamidha, and the races derived from them, asPanchalas, &c. Kripa and Kripi found by santanu. Descendants ofRiksha, the son of Ajamidha. Kurukshetra named from Kuru.Jarasandha and others, kings of Magadha. vp.4.19 [paragraph continues] Dushyanta was the emperor Bharata; a verse explanatory of his name is chaunted by the gods; "The mother is only the receptacle; it is the father by whom a son is begotten. Cherish thy son, Dushyanta; treat not sakuntala with disrespect.Sons, who are born from the paternal loins, rescue their progenitors from the infernal regions. Thou art the parent of this boy; sakuntala has spoken truth." From the expression cherish, Bharaswa, the prince was called Bharata 14. vp.4.19 Bharata had by different wives nine sons, but they were put to death by their own mothers, because Bharata remarked that they bore no resemblance to him, and the women were afraid that he would therefore desert them. The birth of his sons being thus unavailing,Bharata sacrificed to the Maruts, and they gave him Bharadwaja, the son of Vrihaspati by Mamata the wife of Utathya, expelled by the kick of Dirghatamas, his half brother, before his time. This verse explains the purport of his appellation; Silly woman, said Vrihaspati, cherish this child of 15

two fathers (bhara dwa jam). No, Vrihaspati, replied Mamata, do you take care of him. So saying, they both abandoned him; but from their expressions the boy was calledBharadwaja." He was also termed Vitatha, in allusion to the unprofitable (vitatha) birth of the sons of Bharata 15. The son ofVitatha was vp.5.12 When Indra had, by direction of the kine, inaugurated Krishna, the husband of sachi said to him affectionately, "I have thus performed what the cows enjoined me. Now, illustrious being, hear what farther I propose, with a view to facilitate your task. A portion of me has been born as Arjuna, the son of Pritha: let him ever be defended by thee, and he will assist thee in bearing thy burden. He is to be cherished by thee, Madhusudana, like another self." To this Krishnareplied, "I know thy son, who has been born in the race of Bharata, and I will vp.5.12 befriend him as long as I continue upon earth. As long as I am present, invincible sakra, no one shall be able to subdue Arjuna in fight. When the great demon Kansa has been slain, and Arishta,Kesin, Kuvalayapida, Naraka, and other fierce Daityas, shall have been put to death, there will take place a great war, in which the burden of the earth will be removed. Now therefore depart, and be not anxious on account of thy son; for no foe shall triumph overArjuna whilst I am present. For his sake I will restore to Kunti all her sons; with Yudhishthira at their head, unharmed, when the Bharata war is at an end."

rvs.1.33

4 Thou slewest with thy bolt the wealthy Dasyu, alone, yet going with thy helpers, Indra!

rvs.1.33

The Dasyu thou hast burned from heaven, and welcomed the prayer of him who pours the juice and

rvs.1.33

So thou with priests hast blown away the Dasyu, and those who worship not with those who worship.

rvs.1.53

With Indra scattering the Dasyu through these drops, freed from their hate may we obtain abundant

rvs.1.59

Agni Vaisvanara struck down the Dasyu, cleave Sambara through and shattered down his fences.

rvs.1.78

4 Thee, best of Vrtraslayers-, thee who shakest off our Dasyu foes:

rvs.1.103

Cast thy dart, knowing, Thunderer, at the Dasyu; increase the Aryas' might and glory, Indra.

rvs.1.117

Baffling the guiles of the malignant Dasyu, repelling them, ye Mighty in succession.

rvs.1.117

Blasting away the Dasyu with your trumpet, ye gave farspreading- light unto 16

the Arya. rvs.1.175

Burn, like a vessel with the flame, the lawless Dasyu, Conqueror!

rvs.2.11

Thou hast disclosed the light to light the Arya: on thy left hand, O Indra, sank the Dasyu.

rvs.2.12

Who pardons not his boldness who provokes him, who slays the Dasyu, He, O men, is Indra.

rvs.2.15

9 Thou, with sleep whelming Cumuri and Dhuni, slewest the Dasyu, keptest safe Dabhiti.

rvs.4.16

Speed him with help in his inspired invokings: down sink the sorcerer, the prayerless Dasyu.

rvs.4.16

10 Come to our home resolved to slay the Dasyu: Kutsa longed eagerly to win thy friendship.

rvs.5.4

6 Drive thou away the Dasyu with thy weapon. As, gaining vital power for thine own body,

rvs.5.30

Well he distinguished his two different voices, and Indra then advanced to fight the Dasyu.

rvs.6.21

Who visit sacred rites, whose tongue is Agni, Gods who made Manu stronger than the Dasyu.

rvs.6.24

8 Extolled, he bends not to the strong, the steadfast, nor to the bold incited by the Dasyu.

rvs.6.31

4 Thou smotest to the ground the hundred castles, impregnable, of Sambara the Dasyu,

rvs.6.60

6 They slay our Arya foes, these Lords of heroes, slay our Dasyu foes

rvs.7.19

Thou sentest in swift death to sleep the Dasyu, both Cumuri and Dhuni, for Dabhiti.

17

rvs.8.6

14 Against the Dasyu gusna thou, Indra, didst hurl thy during bolt:

rvs.8.59

Him let his friend the mountain cast to rapid death, the mountain cast the Dasyu down.

rvs.9.41

2 Quelling the riteless Dasyu, may we think upon the bridge of bliss,

rvs.9.88

Like Pedus' horse who killed the brood of serpents, thus thou, O Soma, slayest every Dasyu.

rvs.9.92

That he hath given us room and made the daylight, hath holpen Manu and repelled the Dasyu.

rvs.10.22

8 Around us is the Dasyu, riteless, void of sense, inhuman, keeping alien laws.

rvs.10.49

As Susnas' slayer I brandished the dart of death: I gave not up the Aryan name to Dasyu foes.

rvs.10.49

When mans' libation calls me to the robe of state I soon repel the powerful Dasyu with my blows.

rvs.10.73

With these his magic powers assailed the Dasyu: he cast away the gloomy mists, the darkness.

rvs.10.83

Slayer of foes, of Vrtra, and of Dasyu, bring thou to us all kinds of wealth and treasure.

rvs.10.105

7 The bolt, which pierced at once the vitals of the Dasyu easy to be slain,

DAHYU country (often with reference to the people inhabiting it). DAHYU (OIr. dahyu-), attested in Avestan da iiu- da hu- “country” (often with reference to the people inhabiting it; cf. AirWb., cot. 706; Hoffmann, pp. 599-600 n. 14; idem and Narten, pp. 54-55) and in Old Persian dahyu- “country, province” (pl. “nations”; Gershevitch, p. 160). The term is likely to be connected with Old Indiandásyu “enemy” (of the Aryans), which acquired the meaning of “demon, enemy of the gods” (Mayrhofer, Dictionary II, pp. 28-29). Because of the Indo-Iranian parallel, the word may be traced back to the root das-, from which a term denoting a large collectivity of men and women could have been derived. Such traces can be found in Iranian languages: for instance, in the ethnonym Dahae “men” (cf. Av. ethnic name [fem. 18

adj.] dāhī, from d ha-; AirWb., col. 744; Gk. Dáai, etc.), in Old Persian dahā “the Daha people” (Brandenstein and Mayrhofer, pp. 113-14), and in Khotanese daha “man, male” (Bailey, Dictionary, p. 155). In Avestan the term did not have the same technical meaning as in Old Persian. Avestan da iiu, dańhu- refers to the largest unit in the vertical social organization. See, for example, Avestan ᵛaētu- (in the Gathas) “next of kin group” and nmāna-“house,” corresponding to Old Persian taumā- “family”; Avestan vīs- “village,” corresponding to Avestan vərə əna- “clan”; Avestan zantu- “district”; and Avestanda iiu-, dańhu- (Benveniste, 1932; idem, 1938, pp. 6, 13; Thieme, pp. 79ff.; Frye, p. 52; Boyce, Zoroastrianism I, p. 13; Schwartz, p. 649; Gnoli, pp. 15ff.). The connection da iiu, dańhu- and arya- “Aryans” is very common to indicate the Aryan lands and peoples, in some instances in the plural: airii da hāuuō, airiian m da iiun m, airiiābiiō da hubiiō. In Yašt 13.125 and 13.127 five countries (da iiu-) are mentioned, though their identification is unknown or uncertain; in the same Yašt(13.143-44) the countries of other peoples are added to those of the Aryans: tūiriia,sairima, sāinu, dāha. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dahyuDAHAE i. The name. ii. The people. i. The Name Already in 1912 the Old Persian ethnonym Daha- (Gk. Dáoi, Dáai; Lat. Dahae) had been connected by Sten Konow with Khotanese daha- “man, male,” an etymology that is all the more plausible as it is common throughout the world for nations to designate themselves with the words meaning “man” in their respective languages (for a few examples, see Bailey, 1958, pp. 109-10). The corresponding long-grade form *dāha- is represented by New Persian dāh “servant,” Buddhist Sogdian dʾyh, Christian Sogdian dʾy “slave woman,” and apparently also Avestan *Dāha-(or rather *Dåŋha-), attested only as feminine Dāhī-, in Yašt 13.144, where it occurs, together with the Airiia-, Tūiriia-, Sairima- and Sāinu-, as the name of one of the tribes that followed the Zoroastrian religion. The fact that Old Persian Daha- and Avestan *Dāha- seem to be related etymologically is not, however, necessarily proof that the two names referred to the same ethnic group; if the Daha- were indeed a Scythian tribe (see ii, below) it would be difficult to identify them with a group that is clearly excluded from the Airiia- (Aryans) in the Avesta. The ancient Indians also knew of a people called *Dasa- (attested only in adjectival dāsa-), depicted in the Rigveda as enemies of the Ārya-. The same root is also apparent in Avestan da iiu-, Old Persiandahyu- (dahạyu-) “province” (i.e., “(mass of) people”; cf. Skt. dasyu- “(hostile) people, demons”), and perhaps also Avestan aži- dahāka- “manlike serpent” (cf. Schwartz, 123-24).

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See AŽDAHĀ. Bibliography: S. Konow, “Vedic 'dasyu,' Toxrī [i.e. Khotanese] "dahä,"” Festschrift Vilhelm Thomsen, Leipzig, 1912, pp. 96-97. H. W. Bailey, “Iranian arya- and daha-,” TPS 1958, pp. 71-115, esp. 107-12. M. Schwartz, review of M. Mayrhofer, Die avestischen Namen, Iranisches Personennamenbuch I/1, Orientalia 49, 1980, pp. 123-26. O. Szemerényi, Four Old Iranian Ethnic Names, Vienna, 1980, p. 43 n. 123. (François De Blois) ii. The People Herodotus (1.125) referred to the Dáoi as one of the nomadic tribes of the Persians, together with the Mardians, Dropicans, and Sagartians. The name also occurs in the so-called “Daeva inscription” of the Achaemenid king Xerxes I (486-465/4 b.c.e.), where the Dahā are included in a list of thirty dahyāva (lands, provinces) that formed part of the Achaemenid empire (Kent, Old Persian, XPh 26, p. 151). Near the end of the list the Dahā are mentioned together with two clearly Scythian groups, the Sakā haumavargā and the Sakā tigra audā, among various lands and peoples along the periphery of the empire. Furthermore, it is possible that delegates from the Dahā are depicted among the subject peoples in the reliefs in the Central Building and in the Throne Hall at Persepolis (Schmidt, 1953, pls. 118-20, 135-36). Four of the delegates (nos. 17/W9, 18/E9, 22/E11, 28/E14) on each relief are shown wearing almost identical costumes (including the cutaway coat), clearly connecting them with the Scythian groups from the far northeastern part of the empire (see clothing i, v). From the evidence of the provincial lists in various Achaemenid inscriptions, only the Sakā haumavargā, the Dahā, and the people from Sugda- and Uvārazmī- could be identified with these four delegates. In various classical sources the Dahae are listed in the rosters of the Persian army that fought against Alexander the Great at Gaugamela. Arrian (Anabasis 3.11.37) reported that the Dahae fought in the left wing, together with the Bactrians and the Arachosians. Curtius Rufus (4.12.5ff.) also placed the Bactrians and Dahae in the left wing. In addition, both authors noted that beyond the Persian ranks, at the extreme left, there were Bactrian and Scythian cavalry and scythe chariots (Arrian), or the Massagetae (Curtius Rufus). It is thus clear that the left wing of the Achaemenid army was formed by troops from the northeastern part of the empire, predominantly of Scythian descent, and that the Dahae were one of these groups.

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According to his biographers, Alexander later also incorporated Dahae into his own cavalry (Arrian, Anabasis 5.12.2; cf. Curtius Rufus, 7.7.32). They were described as “horseriding” bowmen (cf. Appian, Syriaca 167) and were said to have lived in the wastes northeast of Bactria and east of Sogdiana. At least some of the Dahae must thus be placed along the eastern fringes of the Karakum desert, near ancient Margiana, a conclusion confirmed by information found in some other classical sources (e.g., Ptolemy, Geography 6.10.2; Tacitus, Annales 11.10). It is possible that the Dahae were thus responsible for nomadic invasions of Margiana and Areia some time around 300 b.c.e., in which the towns of Alexandreia and Heracleia, the first located in Margiana, the latter apparently in Areia, were destroyed (cf. Pliny,Historia Naturalis 6.47-48; 33; 6.67; Strabo 11.516). The spread of the Dahae farther west, at least by the mid-3rd century b.c.e., is indicated in other sources, which refer to Dahae who settled in the lands north of ancient Hyrcania, along the southeastern shores of the Caspian Sea. This area was later known as Dahistān (Dehestān). In this connection Strabo (11.508, 11.515) referred to the (S)párnoi (cf. Justin 41.1.10). He also mentioned two other Dahā tribes, namely the Xánthioi and the Píssouroi, who lived east as far as the lands north of ancient Areia (11.511). The (S)párnoi are of particular interest, as elsewhere Strabo reported that Arsaces, the founder of the Parthian empire, who lived around the middle of the 3rd century b.c.e., was the chief of this Dahā tribe (11.515). Strabo added that the (S)párnoi lived along the Ochus; this reference cannot be separated from another (11.509) to the Ochus as one of the rivers that crossed Hyrcania. All this information suggests that the (S)párnoi lived in or near what was later called Dahistān; at least one ancient tradition linked their presence in this area to the Scythian invasions of Parthia that led to the foundation of the Parthian empire. The ensuing history of the Dahistān steppes and their role as a cradle for future rulers on the Persian plateau (cf. the sequence of Turkmen dynasties in Persia since the Middle Ages) appear to support the hypothesis that these lands formed the basis for nomadic inroads into the plains along and between the Khorasan mountain chains. When exactly the (S)párnoi or Dahae settled along the southern and southwestern fringes of the Karakum desert remains unclear; they may have moved there in the late 4th or early 3rd century b.c.e., when other Scythian tribes invaded Margiana and Areia (see above), though the Dahae may have settled in ancient Dahistān much earlier. It could thus be concluded that the main group of the Dahae resided in the arid steppes of the Karakum, in lands inhabited in recent centuries mainly by Turkmen. There is no need to assume, however, that the present harsh conditions already existed in the 1st millennium b.c.e.; archeological finds, for example, a fortress of the Parthian period at Igdy along the banks of the now dried-up Uzboi river (Koshelenko, 1985, pp. 211, 214, 216), suggest that the Karakum was far from completely deserted. The Dahae must have been one of those Scythian groups that dominated traffic between Hyrcania and Parthia to the south and ancientChoresmia to the north. Whether or not the Dáoi listed by Herodotus as one of the Persian tribes should be identified with the Dahae of the Karakum remains uncertain, but in the light of other evidence of northern infiltrations onto the Persian plateau and beyond during the early 1st

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millennium b.c.e. (cf., e.g., the name of the Mardians), it cannot be excluded that Scythian groups, including the Dahae, were present in southwestern Persia at a fairly early date. Bibliography: G. A. Koshelenko, ed., Arkheologiya SSSR. Drevne shie gosudarstva Kavka a i Sredne Azii (Archeology of the U.S.S.R. The ancient empires of the Caucasus and Central Asia), Moscow, 1985. E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis I, Oriental Institute Publications 68, Chicago, 1953. W. Tomaschek, “Daai,” in Pauly-Wissowa IV/2, cols. 1945-46. Idem, “Daoi,” in Pauly-Wissowa IV/2, col. 2133. (Willem Vogelsang) (François de Blois, Willem Vogelsang) Originally Published: December 15, 1993 Last Updated: November 11, 2011 This article is available in print. Vol. VI, Fasc. 6, pp. 581-582 http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dahae

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