Social capital as a design parameter for product-service system design - Based on case study of the fare evasion problem in metro transportation -
제품 서비스 시스템 디자인 요소로서의 사회적 자본 - 대중교통시스템의 무임승차 문제 사례 비교 연구를 중심으로 -
주 저 자 : 배동훈 (Bae, Dong hoon) 홍익대학교 국제디자인전문대학원 디자인경영과
[email protected]
공동저자 : 김원택 (Kim, Won Taik) 홍익대학교 국제디자인전문대학원 디자인경영과
■ 접수일 : 2014년 06월 02일 / 심사일 : 2014년 06월 15일 / 게재확정일 : 2014년 06월 24일
1. Introduction 1-1 Background of the study
(요약) 프로덕트-서비스 시스템 (product-service system)을 계 획하는 디자이너는 이해 관련자들이 어떻게 예상하는
2. PSS and social capital
데로 행동할 것인지, 혹은 시스템을 악용할 가능성이 있
2-1 Social capital and trust level
는지 여러 가지 상황을 고려하여 예측하고, 이를 기반으
2-2 Low level social capital
로 디자인해야 할 필요가 있다. 이해 관련자들이 만약
2-3 High level social capital 2-4 Mid level social capital
정상적으로 행동한다면 , PSS는 성공할 수 있을 것이고, 만약 악용하거나 잘못 된 사용을 한다면, 실패할 위험이 커지게 될 것이다. 특히 이러한 악용 혹은 오용의 문제
3. Cost of trust and mistrust
에 대비하기 위한 PSS는 사회적 자본으로서 사회의 신
3-1 Control on loss of revenue opportunity
뢰도가 낮은 경우 추가 자원이 요구되며 신뢰도가 높은
3-2 Social capital as design parameter for PSS
경우 이러한 실패에 대한 대비 비용의 추가가 필요하지 않다. 예를 들어 독일 울름/노이에 울름 지역의 대중교
4. Conclusion
통수단의 사례를 보면 신뢰를 기반으로 하여 자율적인 승차권 문화에 의해 낮은 비용은 물론이고 편리한 사용
Reference
자 경험을 제공하고 있다. 한편 대한민국 서울의 대중교 통 시스템의 경우 부정승차를 방지하기 위해 많은 비용 을 들여 시스템을 완비하고 있으나 이는 높은 비용구조 와 함께 불편한 사용자경험을 초래하고 있다. 하지만 PSS 디자이너가 이러한 사회적 자본을 직접 관리하는
(Abstract) To design a Product-Service System (PSS), designers often set assumptions about how stakeholder will perform an expected behavior and abuse system as well. Therefore designer needs to consider stakeholder normal usage, and stakeholder abuse of the system for designing a PSS. A PSS based on a low trust level of social capital has to spend extra resource for avoiding risk, and a PSS based on a high trust level of social capital does not need to spend much cost to control risk. For example, self-regulatory ticketing system in metro transportation for the ULM/Neu Ulm region in Germany is convenient and runs by low cost. Otherwise, the public transportation system of Seoul has a strict ticketing system which run by a high cost and also limits the freedom of passengers. Because PSS designer cannot control social capital directly, a designer needs to manage social capital as a design parameter for making an efficient PSS. This study analyzes how the social capital affects PSS, suggests to use social capital as a design parameter and proposes a hypothetical model. By understanding how social capital impacts on PSS, a PSS designer may find an appropriate solution that provides the best efficiency and user experience with low cost, long term sustainability for a society.
것은 매우 어렵다. 따라서 PSS 디자이너는 효율적인 PSS를 만들기 위해 사회적 자본을 PSS 디자인의 매개 변수화 하는 것이 필요하다. 본 연구는 어떻게 이해 관 련자들 간의 사회적 자본이 PSS 디자인에 미치는 영향 과 어떻게 이를 디자인에 응용할 수 있는지를 사례연구 를 통해 분석하고 이론적 모델을 제안하고자 한다. 이러 한 사회적 자본이 PSS 디자인에 미치는 영향을 이해함 으로써 PSS 디자이너는 저비용이면서도 장기적 관점, 사 회적 관점 양면에서 지속 가능하며 편리한 사용자 경험 을 창출하는 보다 적절한 해결안을 만들어 낼 수 있을 것으로 기대 한다.
(Keyword) Product-Service System, Social Capital, Metro Transportation
1. Introduction 1-1. Background of the study
need to understand not only an individual users’ behaviour, but also how levels of social capital are related to trust levels in the society where PSS will be deployed.
The design process is going through series of wicked problems. Rittel(1969) argues that most of the problems
Fukuyama(1996) defines social capital: “Trust is the expectation that arises within a community of regular,
that designer try to solve are wicked problems.1) As a
honest, and cooperative behavior, based on commonly
design process, indeed Product Service System (PSS) design process can be the wickedest problem because stakeholder
shared norms, on the part of other members of that community...Social capital is a capability that arises from
relationships are ever changing through the PSS design
the prevalence of trust in a society or in certain parts of
process. As a wicked problem, the PSS design implementation problem can be described as a resistance
it.” 4) Putnam(2001) also defines social capital as networks and the associated norms of reciprocity have value.5)
toward the change by a new PSS. Baha (2013) argues that wicked problems require a learning oriented approach that focuses on trust and recognition of interdependency.2) In an ideal case, stakeholder will completely trust each other and pay only the actual cost of system implementation and maintenance. However, in reality, depending on the available social capital between stakeholder in a society, a PSS needs to have an appropriate risk avoiding method. Insurance and security systems can be useful risk avoiding methods. Consequently, the cost of such risk avoiding methods will add more cost to the operation budget. Sometimes, The budget could be too much to manage a
Figure 1) Trust level comparison Source: World Values Survey Wave 6: 2010-2014
sustainable system. If the budget is too less, it will be vulnerable for a systemic failure. This case study examines the fare evasion issue in metro transportation systems and
In this study, fare evasion issue in metro transportation systems from different countries will be examined for
analyzes the phenomenon in respect of high, mid, and low
studying how social capital is important for a PSS design.
levels of social capital. As a result, a model of PSS budget creation based on social capital as a design parameter will
Metro transportation systems are similar but actually different by countries. Therefore, it can be a good example
be proposed. Research question such as “How can trust
to study how social capital affects on a PSS design
levels be managed for an efficient and sustainable system?" will be discussed in the conclusion.
development. In Figure 1), World Values Survey shows how trust level can be different by countries.6)
2. PSS and social capital
2-2. Low level social capital
2-1. Social capital and trust level
If a PSS designer assumes that a society has low social
Irwin(2013) suggests that the strength of group ties and concomitant trust affects individuals’ choices regarding contributions to public goods.3) Therefore, PSS designers 1) Horst W.J. Rittel·Melvin M. Webber, Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning, 1969.Dec. 2) Ehsan Baha·Nick Sturkenboom·Yuan Lu·Bas Raijmakers, Using Design to Initiate Collaborative Networks, 2nd Cambridge Academic Design Management Conference, 2013.Sept. 3) Kyle Irwin·Nick Berigan, TRUST, CULTURE, AND COOPERATION: A Social Dilemma Analysis of Pro-Environmental Behaviors, The Sociological Quarterly Vol.54, Issue3, Summer 2013
capital, the PSS needs a variety of check and surveillance systems for avoiding abusive usage and the risk of revenue loss. Especially, if social relationships among stakeholder are temporary and competitive, or are holding each other in check, assuming a low trust level of social capital is a rational start for making a new PSS. A PSS operating 4) Fukuyama, F., Trust: Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity.,Simon and Schuster, 1996, p.26. 5) Putnam, R., Social Capital: Measurement and Consequences, 2001, p.1. 6) World Value Survey, Wave 6, http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV6. jsp
entity needs to provide a transparent procedure and may require identification from users. Generally, customers expect a high quality service from PSS operating entity as well. However, in a case of low level assumption, customers cannot just simply believe a PSS is always supposed to work well and under fair conditions. Even systems that seem work well may be not running on fair conditions all the time. Therefore, customers believe that a proper
auditing
entity(usually,
public
authorities)
is
required to run the system fairly. Operating entities have the responsibility of showing that the system works fairly and monitoring any customer abuse. For example, a general voting system in a democracy is designed with the principle of equality as “one person, one vote” and anonymity as privacy. To meet such standards, a voting system needs to be clear, transparent, and error-free as possible. In the case of South Korea, national election commission manages all election processes with many observers who keep them in check. However, even though the election process is supposed to be perfect, it is actually never perfect. Often, the many recounts that occur due to court order prove instances of miscounting in a vote counting system.7) The error usually comes from the treatment of invalid votes, but it often causes controversial political debates about fair voting systems and even a possibility of fraud. This explains why electric voting system without recountable forms of voting ballots or remote voting via the internet cannot be easily accepted because of a possibility of fraud or a systemic error. Therefore, the evolution of new digital systems is slow , as it must be cautious in every way. Regardless of the social capital in a society, it must assume lowest level of trust level when designing an election voting system.
Figure 2) Automatic Fare Control System in Seoul Source: Korea Smart Card Co., Ltd www.koreasmartcard.com
In Seoul metro transportation, bus passengers who have pre-charged smart cards need to check in and check out at terminals for boarding and alighting as well. If a passenger forgets to check out, that passenger may pay extra fare determined by an assumed calculation (max distance charge – base charge). In Netherlands too, the same check-out problem is seen, as passengers forget to check out after using the bus. An easier money-back claim service was proposed, but it is still an annoying process for all. Actually it cause a negative impact on the bus company brand.9) For the metro train station in Seoul, there are separate check-in gate and check -out gate with turnstiles. There is a surveillance system on every buses to detect fare evasions by passengers and embezzlement by bus driver. Actually, bus drivers have the responsibility of ensuring that passengers pay. Of course, those activities and systems are designed with a low trust assumption, and extra costs have to be paid for ticketing, a ticket operating system, and a surveillance system in addition to the base maintenance cost for running a metro train and bus
network.
In
India,
Calcutta
State
Transport
Another example of a PSS with low level social capital is
Corporation (CSTC), which operates public buses, has a serious problem with fare evasion, estimated at more than
the metro transportation system in Seoul. The smart card
fifteen percent of revenue. To compensate that loss, CSTC
transportation payment system Tmoney is the most popular paying method for the metro transportation system in the
needed a subsidy that is almost half of revenue.10) Figure 3) shows how a PSS can interact with user, public
metro Seoul area. In 2013, 1,740,377 million KRW was
authorities and operation entity for metro transportation
paid with Tmoney smart card service.8) Figure 2) shows how the automatic fare control system in Seoul is operated
system.
by Korea Smart Card company.
7) Paik Jongwhan, Incheon times, http://www.itimes.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=11113 5, 2002 July 13 8) Korea smart card, http://www.koreasmartcard.co.kr/ci/company/ir1_2.html
9) Joost holthuis, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4hFqoFhyeA , TEDxHamburg 2011. 10) Sanjay K. Singh, Review of Urban Transportation in India, Journal of Public Transportation, Vol.8, No.1, 2005, p.89.
experience because there is no hassle for customers or drivers as well. A PSS can be simple and fluid without depending on an unmanned system. From the perspective of operation cost, a PSS operation entity does not spend resource on a complex security system and maintenance. The required man power for inspection is flexible as long as it is under control.
2-4. Mid level social capital Figure 3) PSS interaction map for metro transportation system.
2-3. High level social capital
A case of a PSS based on a relatively medium trust level of social capital is also available. Seoul’s metro transportation system is based on a low trust level and
In a high level of social capital, a PSS assumes customers
Ulm/Neu Ulm’s system is based on a high trust level. If compare with these, the Finnish metro transportation
will behave in a good, fair manner and obey rules in
system may be positioned at a medium trust level.
general. Vice versa, customers also expect that a PSS will provide good, fair service and obey rules as much as
Helsingin Seudun Liikenne (HSL) is the operating entity of Helsinki/Espoo/Vanta region, and it procures train, tram,
possible. Pick-your-own farm is an example of a high
ferry and bus services.12) On buses, there are check-in
trust level business model. The farm allows visitors to pick fruits or vegetables by themselves as much as they want
terminals for smart cards. Depending on the destination region, one needs to press a region button and tap a card
after paying a cover charge. There is no manager or
for paying. For a seasonal card, just tapping is enough to
surveillance system for anti-theft purposes. Paying is often self-service as well. The operator of the farm can estimate
check in. There is a no check-out device, but one hour is allowed for transit on weekdays. On the metro trains,
the advantage of pick-your-own business model over the
there are no check-in/out gates, but a terminal is installed
traditional sales business model.11) Of course, pick-your-own itself has a marketing effect itself, but it is
for one way ticket holder’s check-ins without turnstiles. The system may be also vulnerable for fare evasions. For
based on a certain high level of trust assumption.
example, a passenger may dodge the fare by paying one
For another example, in many countries, the train system
region ticket for travelling two regions (which is more expensive than travelling to one region. e.g. Espoo to
has no check-in gate. It is a kind of honor system. The metro transportation system in the Ulm/Neu Ulm region, operated by Danube Iller Nahverkehrsverbund GmbH (DING), provides a good case of a high trust level PSS.
Helsinki) and a passenger may dodge the fare for using the metro train. Of course, from time to time inspectors come on board for inspection and occasionally detect such
Bus and tram drivers do not check passengers’ ticket actively. Passengers with valid tickets can freely take a bus
abuse cases.13) HSL estimates approximately a 8 million
or a tram without either checking in or showing them.
Thanks to the new ticket inspection mobile system, the
From time to time, inspectors board a bus and ask passengers to show a valid ticket. If a passenger has no
inspected ticket numbers increased. In 2013, HSL inspected the tickets of some 4 million passengers compared to 3.4
valid ticket, he or she will have to pay a fine. This metro
million in the previous year. The total fine issued by HSL
transportation system just assumes passengers will behave fairly by the rule. Therefore, passengers with valid tickets need not care much about check-in or check-out. In case passengers with pre-charged ticket, he or she needs to do check-in at terminal as self-service. Of course, the system of DING can still be vulnerable security system for fare evasions. It is not possible to prevent all fare evasion case. In terms of user experience, it is a quite admirable 11) PickYourOwn.org, http://www.pickyourown.org/
euro loss in ticket sales during 2013.14)
12) Helsingin Seudun Liikenne, Helsinki Region Transport Annual Report 2012, p.5. 13) Tällainen on HSL:n lipuntarkastajien arkipäivä http://www.iltalehti.fi/iltvuutiset/201406160151358_v0.shtm l?fb_action_ids=10152296466218645&fb_action_types=og.re commends&fb_source=aggregation&fb_aggregation_id=2883 81481237582 14) Helsingin Seudun Liikenne, https://www.hsl.fi/en/news/2014/more-effective-ticket-ins pections-reduced-fare-dodging-4524
in 2012 were 5.6million euro. Increasing the frequency of ticket inspection by inspectors is a useful method of
check-in/out process and the time spent is ignored. Children must crawl under when entering with fare-paying
managing revenue and reducing loss of revenue by fare
adults.18) Of course, it can be dangerous for small
evasion.15)
children.19) Another way of catching fare evasion passengers is
3. Cost of trust and mistrust
through randomized ticket inspection by an inspector. In Ulm/Neu Ulm, twenty-five inspectors from
3-1. Control on loss of revenue opportunity
SWU(stadtwerke
The loss of revenue opportunity caused by fare evasion
Around 9,000 passengers without a valid ticket are caught in a year. Forty euro are fine for a normal case. If the act
passenger is not only financial management issue for operating entities, but also often becomes a public concern. Fare evasion is actually not welcomed by other passengers and citizens. Socially, it is out of the norm as petty illegal activity. Reddy et. al. (2011) argues that some law-enforcement officials believe that fight fare evasion deter more serious crimes.It may creates perceptions of an unsafe or insecure transit system. It may increase chance of arrest of wanted criminals.16) Therefore, often citizens are for or not actively against the idea of investing in such a security system as a check on and surveillance against fare evasion. To control fare evasion, systemic
ulm/neu
ulm)
inspect
passengers.20)
is repeated, fare evasion passenger may be arrested.21) In Berlin, approximately 4% of the passengers dodge the fare. In 2013, 228,727 passengers were caught by the BVG(berliner verkehrsbetriebe) and 325,600 passengers were caught by S-Bahn (subsidiary of deutsche bahn). The annual loss was estimated 20 million euro by BVG and 15 Million euro by S-bahn Berlin Gmbh. In 2014, 120 inspectors were hired by BVG and 72 by S-Bahn.22) In metro Helsinki, Finland, an average 2.7% of the inspected passengers were travelling without a valid ticket in 201 3.23)
methods and apparati, such as turnstiles, ticket barriers, camera surveillance systems, check-in/out terminals, and unified control network system, are needed. But investment in security systems and automatic ticketing systems is expensive. In L.A., USA, the light-rail line metro rail locked forty-one out of eighty stations, including sixteen subways stations, and all of them are locked to control fare evasion in 2013. The metro company estimates the cost of adding security gates will be USD 3.1 million. Therefore, the metro company leases the gate system by USD 300,000/month for all of the stations. Actually, many stations are too small to install gates, and it can be dangerous for passengers lining up on the track to get
Table 1) Fare evasion in metro Helsinki. Source: HSL annual report 2012 Fare evasion in HSL Metro/Platform Metro/Train Tram Commuter train Bus Total
2011
2012
4.1% 3.3% 3.5% 5.3% 0.8% 3.6%
3.3% 3.1% 3.4% 4.7% 0.8% 3.2%
In London, UK, a ticket issuing and collection system, including automatic gates at sixty-three stations in the London Underground, was created at the end of 1989. Reduction in fare evasion seems have been achieved. An
through the gates. The average number of passengers who
18) Alla V. Reddy et. al., Op. cit., p.7.
board the metro rail during the weekdays is 357,277.17) On every ride, a passenger has to pay an extra 2.7cents
19) Dorit Hershkovitz, Beit Furik checkpoint, 2008 Aug 11, https://flic.kr/p/5EEMyc
for the system. The base fare of a ride is USD 1.50. On the
hidden
side,
the
inconvenience
caused
by
the
15) Helsingin Seudun Liikenne, https://www.hsl.fi/en/news/2013/intensified-ticketinspections-reduced-fare-dodging-3411 16) Alla V. Reddy et. al., Measuring and Controlling Subway Fare Evasion: Improving Safety and Security at New York City Transit Authority, TRB 2011 Annual meeting, 2011. 17) Jon Schleuss, Gate dilemma will keep Metro rail riders on honor system, Los Angeles Times, 2013 Nov.17
20) Stadtwerke Ulm/Neu-Ulm Netze GmbH, https://www.swu.de 21) Schwarzfahren bis kurz vor den Knast, http://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/neu-ulm/Schwarzfa hren-bis-kurz-vor-den-Knast-id28372787.html, 2014 Jan. 13 22) Schwarzfahrer: Über 500.000 Mal erwischt!, http://www.bz-berlin.de/aktuell/berlin/schwarzfahrer-uebe r-500-000-mal-erwischt-article1806840.html, 2013 Feb. 22 23) HSL 2013 annual report, p.9.
estimated £20 million was saved in fare evasion during the first year. However initial investment of £165 million was
entrepreneurship.27) For example, if a high level of social capital is expected in a society, PSS designers can design a
big. Some stations anticipated reductions in fare evasion
PSS need at a low maintenance cost. On the contrary, if
that would justify the installation, but some other smaller stations will be never justified. Such an investment should
there is a low level of social capital, PSS designers need to invest more in security systems for maintaining the system.
be continued as long as it serves the purpose.24) Of
From the case study in this paper, this hypothetical model
course, the inconvenience for honest passengers is not considered, and the system may create a jail-like user
can be described in the following manner:
experience. Furthermore, escaping from the subway station
in case of an emergency will present obstacles, especially for disabled passengers. To catch all system abusing users,
Sp is a certain budget which is needed for running the
a security system may be the best way to avoid risk and
PSS. Pc is the required cost for a needed security system. Pm is the required cost to maintain the PSS over a time
any loss. But ticket inspection cannot be perfect for catching all fare evasion passengers. A PSS for catching all fare evasion passenger not only needs expensive investment, cause inconvenience but also bad user experience for all other honest passengers. Of course, fare evasion is not the only concern for security systems. The 2004 transit bombing in Madrid and 2005 bombing in London are examples of security vulnerabilities in metro transportation systems.25) Though a security system can help to detect robbery, theft and terrorist attacks, no one can be sure about privacy protection or abuse of the system by authorities.
span. Sc is social capital as the trust level of a society. Sc can range on a numerical scale from 0 to 1. In a case of metro transportation, Sc also can be (1-Pe). Pe is the estimated percentage of fare evasion passengers. If Sc =0, it will be impossible to run any PSS. If Sc is low, Sp is increased. Therefore, (Pc+Pm) need to be increased to compensate. Because usually Pm need to be fixed, extra Pc may be required for compensation. As Sc increases, needed (Pc+Pm) can be smaller. For example, in the case of HSL, if HSL plans a new way to prevent fare evasion, any alternative Sp of new PSS should have the capability of making less loss than estimated loss of current. Otherwise, it would not make sense for replacement. If Sp increases
3-2. Social capital as design parameter for PSS The trust level of a society is mainly determined by the socio-cultural environment and the implicit agreements between citizens and operation entities. PSS designers need to understand the parameter of social capital, which shows the trust level in the society where a PSS will be deployed, and they should use the parameter for PSS design. The case study of metro transportation in this paper proposes that a certain security of the system should be supported by resources for building and maintaining a PSS. If there is not enough social capital in a society, it should be compensated by resource investment in security systems. Because trust promotes cooperation,26) a high level of social capital reduces transaction cost and encourages
24) Ronald V. Clarke, Fare evasion and automatic ticket collection on the London underground, 1993. 25) Rodell Notbohm, How Transit Video Surveillance Systems Play an Important Role in Security and Efficiency, http://security-today.com/Articles/2013/04/01/HowTransit-Video-Surveillance-Systems-Play-an-ImportantRole-in-Security-and-Efficiency.aspx?Page=1, 2013 April1 26) La Porta et. al., Trust in Large Organization, American Economic Review 87(2), pp.337.
by lowered Sc (social capital decreasing) and increased Pm (e.g. wage increasing), PSS designers may consider to invest more efficient security systems such as automatic networking intelligence security system. On the other hand, if Sp becomes smaller by increased Sc (social capital increasing) and decreased Pm (e.g. wage decreasing), PSS designers may consider a flexible and cheaper cost system. For example, the LA metro rail manages 18.5 million journeys. HSL managed 345 million journeys in 2012. HSL managed 18.6 times more than LA metro passengers. LA metro rails spends 3.6 million USD/year for leasing a gate system to prevent fare evasion.28) It seems LA metro rails is running by much more expensive system than the system of HSL. Because of socio-cultural and economical differences between these two societies, it is difficult to say that the system of HSL is definitely superior than the LA metro system, but it shows different approaches for a similar metro transportation system depend on social capital. However, it seems clear that HSL passengers can have a better user experience from metro transportation 27) 이동원, 사회신뢰의 결과와 원인, 한국경제연구원, 2013 8월, p.1. 28) Jon Schleuss, Op. cit.
COOPERATION: A Social Dilemma Analysis of Pro-Environmental Behaviors, The Sociological Quarterly Vol.54, Issue.3, Summer 2013.
without turnstiles and locked gates.
4. Conclusion Unfortunately, it is almost impossible for PSS designers to
∙ Fukuyama, F., Trust: Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity., Simon and Schuster, 1996.
control social capital. Yamagishi(2011) argues that trust and social intelligence co-evolve and that distrust and lack
∙ Putnam, R., Social Capital: Measurement and Consequences, 2001.
of
social
intelligence
constitute
a
vicious
cycle.29)
Therefore, PSS designs need to adapt whatever trust level of social capital exists in a society. They may also impact social capital as a positive way of furthering social intelligence evolution. Therefore, PSS designers should be able to understand and estimate social capital in a society. Depending on social capital, PSS designers may assume how much resource is required to compensate for the lack of social capital. Of course, excessive investment on security systems cannot always be the best way. Not only do cost a lot, but also result in bad user experience for all. Otherwise, not having enough investment will be risky for maintaining a PSS. As argued, a high trust level system shows more flexible and humane way of managing a PSS that provides a pleasurable, convenient user experience for all passengers in the cases of Finland and Germany’s metro transportation systems. They may be vulnerable to system abusing users. However, a certain degree of vulnerability
is
required
to
establish
trust.
Hence,
depending on the purpose and context of PSS design in a society, PSS designers need to manage a PSS with appropriate social capital assumption and then find appropriate solutions that provide the best efficiency, long-term sustainability, and a great user experience as well. Especially, it is important that PSS designers, public authorities and operation entities build a plan together for new public PSS and consider social capital at the early stage as possible.
Reference
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