\" Tourism as empowerment \" A Concept Paper: Department of Cultural Anthropology and Tourism

“Tourism as empowerment” A concept paper prepared by: Jacob M. Shenyagwa University Of Iringa (Uoi) Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Department of Cultural Anthropology and Tourism Masters of Arts in Tourism, Culture and Society © 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION ONE............................................................................................................................. 4 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 4 Women empowerment ................................................................................................................ 4 SECTION TWO............................................................................................................................ 6 The history of women empowerment globally ........................................................................... 6 Tourism as empowerment ........................................................................................................... 7 Gender in tourism development policy ....................................................................................... 9 Gender in the United Nation World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) ................................... 10 Gender and tourism at the World Bank..................................................................................... 10 Constraints which face women empowerment.......................................................................... 11 Who should empower women? ................................................................................................. 13 Benefits of women empowerment in travel .............................................................................. 14 Benefits to the hosts .................................................................................................................. 14 Creation of pure relationship ................................................................................................ 14 Construction of self................................................................................................................ 15 Economic benefits.................................................................................................................. 15 Benefits of guests ...................................................................................................................... 16 Psychological benefits ........................................................................................................... 16 Freedom from male domination ............................................................................................ 16

2|Page

Personal development............................................................................................................ 16 SECTION THREE...................................................................................................................... 17 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.......................................................................................... 17 SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 17 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 17 REFFERENCE ........................................................................................................................... 18

3|Page

SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION For centuries women were not treated equal to men in many ways. They were not allowed to own property, they did not have a Share in the property of their parents, they had no voting rights, and they had no freedom to choose their work or job and so on. This paper presents a critical analysis of literature concerning the issue of gender particular women empowerment. The work divided into three main part; introduction, main body and conclusion. In this section we will analyze different definitions of empowerment from different scholars while in the main body we will examine the history of women empowerment globally, tourism as empowerment, gender in tourism development policy, gender in the UNWTO, gender and tourism at the World Bank women, who should empower women, how women are disempowered, constraints facing women in travel as well as the benefits of empowerment to women’s host and guest through tourism. The last section will only present a summary of what have been discussed especially the meaning and the history of women empowerment as well as the opinions. Women empowerment According to the Federal Ministry for European and International Affairs, Directorate-General for Development Cooperation, define women empowerment as the process in which one’s gaining access and opportunity to participate actively in various activities which can shape his/her own life economically, socially and politically (FMEIA, 2010). Kabeer define the women’s empowerment as “women’s ability to make strategic life choices where that ability had been previously denied them” (Kabeer 1999). Ampumuza define Empowerment as “a critical aspect of gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of life”. Based on their research; Ampumuza belief that the critical aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women, with a focus on identifying and redressing power imbalances and giving women more independence to manage their own lives (Ampumuza, 2008). This definition seen to be most potential for us since it portray a broadness of the term whereas the issue of economic, political, socially aspects have been considered. 4|Page

Therefore from the above definitions we can argue that women empowerment involve the emphasis of equality between men and women to the economic benefits, political and social so that everyone could enjoy equally.

5|Page

SECTION TWO This section present the main ideas related to the women empowerment particular in tourism. The discussion under this section will focus on the history of women empowerment globally, tourism as empowerment, gender in tourism development policy, gender in the UNWTO, gender and tourism at the World Bank women, who should empower women, how women are disempowered, constraints facing women in travel as well as the benefits of empowerment to women’s host and guest through tourism The history of women empowerment globally The concept of empowerment goes back to mid-17th century where as different meanings were used such as to invest with authority, enable or permit and so on (Tripathi, n.d), but after 1980s meaning diverted into more general and the concept was changed to become more political oriented as it was used by the feminist to address social inequality in the society. It has since then been interpreted differently and filled with new meanings which today used in such different sectors as business, social work, development discussion and by advocates of very different political agendas (Tripathi ,n.d.). According to Kabeer accept that women empowerment traces its root since the rise of feminist scholars. Feminist contributed much to the rise of awareness about the equality thus brought this concern into the gender and development discourses (Kabeer, 2012). She argues that feminist movements have the great influence to the creation of attention to the majority about the subordinate group in the society (Kabeer, 2012). There were a number of features which Kabeer identified them as they were contribute much to the emergence of the women empowerment concept, these are firstly; the power within which focused on women’s subjectivity and consciousness, secondly was emphasized to women’s capacity to take control over key aspects of their lives and to be involved in the wider society, thirdly was the emphasize of the need for women to unity, both to acquire a common understanding of the institutionalized rather than individual and separation (Kabeer, 2012).

6|Page

They believe that through unity they could be able to address social injustices they faced and to act collectively to tackle these injustices, which is a great challenge that individual could not be able to fight for. Finally, according to Kabeer argued that feminists’ ideas brought a consciousness about the issue of gender since they contribute to understand that women did not form a homogenous group rather they are connected to other many socio economic aspects such as classes, race, ethnicity, location and so on thus to neglect gender equality could encourage other form of discrimination (Kabeer, 2012). After this trend, gender issues began to take more consideration in various aspects particular to enter the mainstream of the development policy. Many scholars attempted to conceptualize women’s empowerment but Kabeer used to translate the feminists thoughts into the policy analytical framework (Kabeer, 2012). She came with the definition of the women’s empowerment as “the processes through which women gained the capacity for exercising strategic forms of agency in relation to their own lives as well as in relation to the larger structures of constraint that positioned them as subordinate to men” (Kabeer,2001). Tourism as empowerment The empowerment of women through tourism official established during the Berlin conference of March, 2008. The United Nation World Travel Organization (UNWTO) implemented an Action Plan to empower women with the aims of improving life (benefit poor) through tourism, protecting the environment and to empower women (Ampumuza, 2008). Tourism seen as a tool of empowerment because of the following contributions: Tourism provides the opportunity and authority to control natural resource: It is the truth that in developing countries women are mostly involving directly to the natural resource (Ampumuza, 2008). The household responsibilities are most likely assigned to women, such as securing water, food, fuel and overseen the family. Because women tend to put into practice what they have learned, tourism used as a tool of transmitting knowledge thus to create awareness and consciousness about the wise uses of resources as well as conservation. Ampumuza believed that 7|Page

tourism empowering women through capacity building thus lead to the improvement of livelihood and sustainable development (Ampumuza, 2008), Economic empowerment: Literature show that many women live in poverty than men (UNFPA, 2008). Ampumuza argue that most of unpaid labors are assigned to women while they are discriminated from the productive works. Women lack the opportunity of owning the properties like farms and large investment. Due to such reason tourism become as a solution of addressing their problems since it provide the opportunity to women selling the small and medium products such as crafts, food and other business. (Ampumuza, 2008) Educational empowerment: According to the UN report show that two thirds of illiterate adults in the world are female (UN, 2008). In developing countries for instance the opportunity to education for women is much limited compared with men. Most of the women are said to be important to the family affair and housekeeping rather than improving their well being. The issue of infant mortality and infertility still is a challenge to the most of women because they lack an appropriate education about the matter (Ampumuza, 2008). Through tourism programs women can be skilled in various aspects of life particular in tourism entrepreneurship, hospitality skills, guiding tourists, managing project, and many other activities. Political empowerment: During the implementation of tourism project women can be involved into planning and action so that to raise their ability in leadership affairs. Tourism could be used as a tool of encouragement to the women since the same experience acquired from the projects can be useful to other aspects in politic. Also through tourism women could be able to identify their rights to land access and resource ownership, participation in decision making thus make their voice audible politically (Ampumuza, 2008). While Ampumuza elaborate the extent to which tourism is an instrument of empowering women, Fergason described on relationship or link between the feminist vision of development and tourism development policy. He argued that tourism is highly gendered industry. He mentioned one aspect in which tourism contributes to the macro-economic development that is employment but the benefits of tourism employment tend to presented in “gender-neutral way” (Fergason, 2011). 8|Page

In tourism industry employment is highly gendered oriented, for example majority of women’s works is concentrated in seasonal work, part time and low paid activities such as retail, hospitality and cleaning (Fergason, 2011:pp 237). Fergason present a report which released by ILO to show how employment in tourism industry is gender oriented. The report show that only 46% of women are waged employees in tourism globally where as 90% is employed in catering and accommodation sector as a quoted that “They (women) occupy the lower levels of the occupational structure in the tourism labor market, with few career development opportunities and low levels of remuneration (some estimates suggest that wages for women are up to 20% lower than those for men). The greater incidence of unemployment among women is attributed to their low skill levels and their low social status in many poor countries. They also tend to be the first affected when labour retrenchment occurs as a result of recession or adjustment to new technology. It should also be noted that the majority of workers in subcontracted, temporary, casual or part-time employment are women (ILO, 2001, p. 74) From the feminist point of view, Fergason demonstrate how women’s empowerment is limited especially in developing countries where as women are much assigned to the burden of family care rather than production. This global view blind the women to identify and enjoying the potential of tourism in their lives (Fergason, 2011). Gender in tourism development policy According to Fergason argued that there is no clear connection between making gender more noticeable in development policy and gender equality and empowerment outcomes. Fergason suggested that the issue of gender policy in development and feminist analysis must be critically analyzed so that to understand their potential to the contribution of gender equality and women’s empowerment. He emphasized that the context in which tourism policies and gender policies are made must be de-politicized so that to overcome those constraints of women’s empowerment which most of them are resulted by the political affiliations (Fergason, 2011). Citing the Japan as a case, Fergason showing how gender and tourism policies are enhanced and facilitated. For instance the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) enhanced a number of projects that integrate gender and tourism development, where as gender specialists involved 9|Page

much to raise awareness and confidence through training for indigenous women making handicrafts and other products for the tourism industry (Fergason, 2011). In Africa particular Mali and Namibia the Spanish International Cooperation and Development Agency (AECID) initiated two projects focused on gender equality and tourism development. These are just examples in which gender and tourism policies could be linked and enhanced together for the achieving empowerment of women. Gender in the United Nation World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Fergason challenged the work done by UNWTO by claiming that the organization is working very slow compared with other UN institution particular on the matter of gender. He argued that in the organization gender falls within a category of Ethical and Social Dimensions of Tourism Program, which involves small team of human resource thus, lead to the failure of constructing and promoting the strong agenda related to gender (Fergason, 2011). Up to 2007 reports show that in UNWTO the concept of gender was not so much visible. Even those available resources within organization were managed to be functioned particular during World Tourism day of 2007 (Fergason, 2011). Another contribution of UNWTO which can be seen is the outcome of UNWTO Forum held in Berlin 2008, whereas the organization managed to sign a Memorandum of understanding with United Nation Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) with the aim of explores the theme of women in tourism. According to Fergason emphasis that UNWTO should be committed to the issue of gender by establishing effective methods and uses of sufficient resources and expertise in order the agreement and policy to be achieved (Fergason, 2011). Gender and tourism at the World Bank World Bank is a largest institution of development which is most important instrument of understanding gender and tourism policies (Fergason, 2011). Apart from poverty reduction the emphasis to the increase of employment and income generation is the second role of this largest institution where as women are given priority as a way of empowerment. In large extent World Bank achieved to promote gender equality hence to empower women compared with other organization.

10 | P a g e

Fergason continue to point out the World Bank’s publications on gender and the MDGs, which is clearly show how far the organization managed to address gender inequality thus to be viewed as not so much a problem (Fergason, 2011). From this view Fergason belief that World Bank is committed and the members are serious due to the statements and action which are used to empower women. This is among of the World Bank’s statement related to gender “Studies show that when women are given economic opportunity, the benefits are also large for their families, their communities, and ultimately for national development efforts. Opening economic opportunities for women puts poverty reduction on a faster track and steps up progress towards the Millennium Development Goals, which include the eradication of poverty and hunger by 2015” (World Bank, 2007) From that statement we come to realize that World Bank has two main focus which are to empower the women economically and poverty reduction globally. However, the World Bank appreciating the contribution of tourism industry to the growth of economy and women empowerment though there is no existing document discussing about the matter. Tourism industry is among of the sectors which gain a lot of funds from the donors due to the presence of various projects related to poverty reduction and women empowerment particular through employment and enterprises as World Bank stated that “Tourism, natural resource management and small enterprise development are all areas that offer particular opportunities for employment, income and participation by women. In cooperation with NGOs, the Government is also supporting women’s associations that assist women household heads with weak economic capacity” (World Bank, 2005). To summarize about the matter, Fergason

still is doubting concerning the tourism as

empowerment compared to Ampumuza who have absolutely faith on tourism thus to regard it as a device of women’s empowerment (Fergason, 2011; Ampumuza, 2008). Constraints which face women empowerment A constraint to leisure is defined as “anything that hinders people in their ability to engage or remain in leisure activities, to access leisure or recreation services, or to achieve a desired level of satisfaction” (Jackson & Henderson, 1995). Most of tourism literature and dated research that exists is related to leisure constraints. Women have historically and culturally been constrained in their leisure time and travels. Studies of women’s leisure have consistently revealed that 11 | P a g e

females tend to be more highly and intensely constrained than men in seeking access to leisure and tourism activities (Henderson, 1991). There are several key variables of constraints found in previous findings that impact female travelers. The study on leisure constraints have included women’s fear of

male violence,

religious sources, limitations of mobility, sexual harassment, family obligations/ethic of care, and holidays as sexualized space (Valentine, 1989 and Khan, 2011). Another artificial element of women in tourism is the portrayal of sexuality to promote mass tourist markets (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008). Subsequently, tourism is developed as a gendered process in a male-dominated industry providing visitors with opportunities to consume a feminized and obedient destination (Morais & Usher, 2009). The sexualization of tourism goes beyond the imaginary world of brochures and postcards (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008). Specific holiday places and spaces are also socially and culturally constituted as sexualized environments (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008). According to Ryan, sex and tourism are things which cannot separate; that sex is an accepted part of tourism (Ryan, 2001). They propose that the linkage between sex and tourism be viewed as a natural range from non-commercial sexual encounters (such as holiday romances) through to the extremes of commercial sexual encounters (such as sex slavery/trafficking) (Ryan & Hall, 2001). Women being portrayed as sexual objects, consciously or not consciously, are subject to the established power of tourism- men (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008). Capitalism, top-down approaches to development and poverty are said to be another constraints to the women empowermenr (Malhotra et al, 2002). Malhotra elaborated on the mechanisms and locations of women’s disempowerment that the household and interfamilial relations are central place of women’s disempowerment. This means that efforts at empowering women must begin with the implications of broader policy action at the household level (Malhotra et al, 2002). Kabeer on the other hand argued that women’s empowerment requires systemic transformation in not just any institutions, but fundamentally in those supporting patriarchal structures (Kabeer, 2001).

12 | P a g e

Paterson also identifies interfamilial relations as a source of women’s disempowerment, but she was also stressed its potential as a crucial site for sustainable and deep social change. She further suggests that religion and history may be mobilized by women to achieve their goals and that “working to value, build and strengthen families and communities may ultimately be more empowering than taking women out of their context.” (Paterson, n.d). In tourism, the literatures show that before 19th C travel was dominated by men whereas the travelers labeled as the adventurers and explorers. These labels have been tied together with the masculinity and soldiering. In many societies (Western) it was not common for the women to travel independently as what men did. Women were faced by the critical societal restrictions to travel or even dare to write about their travel (Harris, 2007). The itineraries by then were made up with the male connotations of bravery and exploration thus in the early 19 th C women begin to find ways to travel and travel independently. At the 19th C. the growing numbers of independent women travelers emerged but those who succeeded to independently travel were said to be privileged women or the daughters of well educated and highly regarded families. Women who travelled during this time were assumed that they attempted to break the boundaries of norms and traditional feminine limitations (Harris, 2007). According to Harris, recently the numbers of independent women travelers is increased while the guidebooks and anthologies for women travelers are used to provide the historical accounts of grand journey or tips on how to travel safely and successful to overcome the constrains associated with the female travel. Also the growing number of literatures emerged with emphasis on empowering and beneficial aspects of travel for the independent women (Harris, 2007). Who should empower women? Some of the scholars argue that women’s empowerment must be initiated from below (Bennett 2002). According to Sen said that “Women themselves must be significant actors in the process of changes” (Sen, 1993). Malhotra believed that theoretically there could be an improvement in indicators of gender equality and intervening processes of empowerment. The appropriate external support from 13 | P a g e

outside professional would have to be one of a helper and facilitator of gender and women empowerment. Though some scholars believed that empowerment is a process cannot be imposed by an outsider but through appropriate external support and intervention can speed up and encourage it (Malhotra et al, 2002). Paterson (n.d) observes that most of the literature on women’s empowerment says little about the role of men. Is it because women have to acquire power independently of men in order to feel empowered? Alternatively, is women’s empowerment accompanied by men’s disempowerment? Paterson comments that in conditions of poverty, “men are often limited in power and agency to change their own life choices, even though they may be better off than women” and that women’s empowerment may be beneficial to the community as well as to women in particular (Paterson, n.d) . Benefits of women empowerment in travel According to Harris and Wilson there are three main themes from feminist perspective about the benefits of women travel. These are: a search for self and self-identity, self empowerment and connectedness with others/ ‘global citizenship’ (Harris and Wilson, 2006). These themes are not relating to pre, during, or post travel. The three themes are mutually inclusive and can be experienced anytime. These themes are relative for women travelers and the hosts because they provide a sense of accomplishment and better understanding of one’s self. The studies suggest that women’s motivations for independent travel relate to the desire to challenge them, find a sense of autonomy and self-determination, meet new people, and/or extend out of their comfort zone (Jordan & Gibson, 2005). From these themes, therefore the benefits of women empowerment in tourism fall into two sides; to the hosts and guests as described below: Benefits to the hosts: Creation of pure relationship This is a relationship that based on ones individual choice rather than being influenced from the external conditions of social and economic life. The main focus of pure relationship is intimacy, which depend on the commitment and trust (Cone, 1995). It could be a host-host relationship or 14 | P a g e

host-visitor relationship. Both are useful because they generate opportunities to find the economic and social benefits. According to Cone noted that host-visitor relationship creates a chance of improving one’s life and changing the history. Taking an example from Mayans craftswomen; they were able to improve their lives through skills of crafts and encountering with the outsiders as Cone said “Manuela’s friends are tickets to opportunities. She takes pleasure in their company but she maintains the stance of a separate observer” (Cone, 1995). Construction of self One among of the advantages of tourism to the hosts is creation of self identity and consciousness. Tourism is a process of traveling and interacting with other people. This interaction acting as a benefit thus one can learn from other and being determined. Manuela and Pasquala are the Highland Mayan craftswomen in Mexico. They were able to identify themselves as subordinated group after the contacts with the outsiders through crafts entrepreneurship (Cone, 1995:319). According to Cone; women that participating in the production of tourism crafts creates the opportunity to extend their domestic sphere thus lead to the creation of new kinds of identities (Cones, 1995: 315). Economic benefits Tourism is acting as a tool for women host empowerment because it creates opportunities to employment, controlling over resources as well as resource ownership. Cones identified several economic benefits but mostly are employment (Cone, 1995). The women host benefited from tourism through selling their crafts such as ports, traditional clothes and many other enterprises. Manuela and Pasquala are the Mexian craftswomen who were able to use their skills of ceramics and weaving in order to generate income. By then, this job was not considered as a potential because it could be done for only domestic uses. The growth of tourism expose the business into the world wide thus the entrepreneurs were able to

15 | P a g e

sell their crafts to the tourists so that they could get foreign income and improve their live (Cone, 1995). Benefits of guests: Psychological benefits Psychological benefits of tourism to the guest female involve the feeling of independent and self control, feeling of confidence and freedom (Riley, 1988; Gibson and Jordan, 1998). Female guests being empowered through tourism because it gives them opportunities to increase knowledge through interaction with others people thus offer a unique and important method of increasing a sense of self, confidence and empowerment (Harris, 2007). Freedom from male domination According to Wearing described leisure as heterotopias (an area for women’s resistance to dominant discourse which keeps them to subordinate position). Leisure enables women to participate fully in the life rather than oppressed and discriminated (Wearing, 1994). This connected to finding a sense of freedom and liberation example freed from responsibilities and care for others such as family, children, friends and work colleagues. According to Harris tourism provides a chance of being away from some responsibility particular home responsibilities (Harris, 2007). Personal development Travels provide someone with the opportunity to grow personal through overcoming obstacles and meeting challenges (Harris, 2007). It creates opportunity of interacting and network expansion thus enabling women to grow in terms of skills and experience.

16 | P a g e

SECTION THREE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION SUMMARY This section presents a brief about the tourism as empowerment whereas basic ideas are summarized to make the reader being able to understand the matter. Generally women empowerment can be defined as “a critical aspect of gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of life” (Ampumuza, et al 2008). Literatures show that the concept of empowerment goes back to mid-17th century where as different meanings were used but after 1980s meaning diverted into more general and the concept was changed to become more political oriented as it was used by the feminist to address social inequality in the society. According to Kabeer (2012) argued that feminist contributed much to the rise of awareness about the equality thus brought this concern into the gender and development discourses (Kabeer, 2012). She mentioned numbers of features used by the feminist concerning to struggle for gender equality such as power within, women’s capacity to take control over key aspects of their lives and to be involved in the wider society, as well as the emphasize of the need for women to unity rather than individual struggling and separation. CONCLUSION Tourism can alter gender relation as well as transform power relation among different ethnic groups. On the other hand can lead to dramatic economic changes since women have the potential to change their own economic status, as well as that of the communities and countries in which they live. Yet more often than not, women’s economic contributions go unrecognized, their work undervalued and their promise unnourished. Unequal opportunities between women and men continue to hamper women’s ability to lift themselves from poverty and gain more options to improve their lives.

17 | P a g e

REFFERENCE Ampumuza, C. et al. (2008). Women empowerment through tourism. Project report. Bennett, L. (2002). Using Empowerment and Social Inclusion for Pro-poor Growth. A Theory of Social Change. Working Draft of Background Paper for the Social Development Strategy Paper. Washington, DC. Cone, C. (1995). Crafting Selves: The lives of Two Mayan Women. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 314-327. Deem, R. (1982). Women, leisure, and inequality. Leisure Studies, 1, 29-46. Federal Ministry for European and International Affairs. (2010). Gender equality and empowerment of women. Policy document. Austria; Vienna. Fergason, L. (2011). Promoting gender equality and empowering women. Current Issues in Tourism, 14:3, 235-249. Gibson, H. & Jordan, F. (1998). Shirley Valentine lives! The experiences of solo women travelers. Paper presented at the Fifth Congress of the World Leisure and Recreation Association, 26-30 October, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Harris, C. (2007). Travelling Beyond the Boundaries of Constraints. In A. Pritchard, N. Morgan, I. Atelvejic and C. Harris (Eds.), Tourism and Gender Embodiment, Sensuality and Experience (pp. 235-240). Henderson, A. (1991). The contribution of feminism to an understanding of leisure constraints. Journal of Leisure Research, 26, 119-137. ILO. (2001). Human resources development, employment and globalization in the hotel, catering and tourism sector. Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on the Human Resources Development, Employment and Globalization in the Hotel, Catering and Tourism Sector. Geneva. Jackson, E. & Henderson, A. (1995). Gender-based analysis of leisure constraints. Journal of Leisure Sciences, 17(1), 31-51. Jordan, F. & Aitchison, C. (2008). Tourism and the sexualization of the gaze. Journal of Leisure Studies, 27, 329-349. Jordan, F. & Gibson, H. (2005). “We’re not stupid…but we we’ll not stay home either”. Journal of Tourism Review International, 17, 195-211. 18 | P a g e

Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment Development and Change Kabeer, N. (2001). Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Paper report Kabeer, N. (2012). Women’s economic employment and inclusive growth. Series report Khan, S. (2011). Gendered leisure. Journal of Tourism, 6, 105-121. Malhotra, A. et al (2002). Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable in International Development. Background Paper prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender. Morais, B. & Usher, L. (2009). Women in tourism. Contours, 19, 4-7. Paterson, R. (n.d.). Women’s Empowerment in challenging environments. Policy Paper. Riley, R. (1998). Road culture of International long-term budget travelers. Annals of Tourism Research, 15, 313-328. Ryan, C. & Hall, M. (2001). Sex tourism. Journal of Business and Economics, p. 1-172. Sen, G. (1993). Women’s empowerment and human rights. The challenge to policy. Paper presented at the Population Summit of the World’s ScientificAcademies. Tripath, T. (n.d). Women’s Empowerment. Concept paper. UN. (2008). Millennium development goals monitor. Annual Report UNFPA. (2008). Empowering women through tourism. Annual Report Valentine, G. (1989). The geography of women’s fear. Area, 21, 385-390. Wearing, B. (1994). The pain and pleasure of gendered leisure. World leisure and recreation, 36 (3), 4-10. Wilson, E., & Harris, C. (2006). Meaningful travel. Journal of Tourism, 54, 161-172. World Bank. (2005). Project Appraisal Document: Tran frontier conservation areas and tourism development. World Bank. (2007). Project appraisal document. Lake Titicaca local sustainable tourism development project. Washington D.C.

19 | P a g e