A Contemporary Perspective on Islamic Educational Leadership

A Contemporary Perspective on Islamic Educational Leadership Dr Imran Hussain Khan Suddahazai

Abstract This paper seeks to present a contemporary understanding and definition of Islamic educational leadership. The theoretical argument presented demonstrates that Prophet Muhammad (s) forms the role model to be emulated but not to be blindly imitated. Thus, Muhammad’s (s) leadership has been popularly recognised to be charismatic. However, Muslim educators argue that, based upon the process of revelation, the educational nature of the sacred scripture (Quran) and the Prophet’s (s) divine mission, Muhammad (s) was first and foremost an educator and a teacher-leader. This implies that his educational methods and pedagogy form the basis for educational leadership in Islam. The paper concludes by identifying this prophetic leadership style to be characterised by his ethical and moral factors. The realisation of these factors can be understood to be the development of the innate traits and qualities, through the education process. The eventual manifestation of these ethical and moral factors is evident in the conduct and behavior of an individual.

The Study of Role-Based Leadership in Islamic Education It is argued that the Islamic persuasions on the concept of leadership are intimately intertwined within the veracity of its heritage and tradition. Therefore, as the entire ethos of the Islamic tradition is established upon the character and personality of a single individual, the salience of leadership is almost self-evident. The early Islamic scholars interpret the Quranic narration to imply that Allah, the Creator and Ultimate Truth, has chosen throughout human history a few righteous personalities to become vessels to embody His divine message in word and deed. These Prophets (nabi) and Messengers (rasul) were tasked with ‘going before’1 the people as ‘imams’2 to lead them ‘out of Jahalia’(7:199)3 towards truth (2:109, 2:213, 2:252,4:170), certainty (15:99) and faith (16:123, 4:125) by teaching them to realise

the reality and purpose of their existence (51:56). Prophet Muhammad (s), identified by the Quran to be the seal of the Prophets (Khatam al nabiyin) (33:40), is considered by the Islamic tradition to be the ultimate personification of this ideal. The Quran explicitly declares that in the personhood of the Prophet “is an excellent example (uswah hasanah)…” (33:21). Adair (2010) argues that in contemporary parlance, Prophet Muhammad (s) is a ‘role model’. The designation of Role implies “…by origin a part taken by an actor in a play, but in our wider use it means a person’s characteristic or expected function…” whilst a ‘Model’ is a person who is regarded by others as an outstandingly good example of a particular role”. (Adair, 2010, P.1) According to Gregg (2005)4, when this notion of role model is applied to “God, the Prophets, the saints and religious teachers…it might be termed a ‘Sacred Other…from whose perspective a believer sees themselves and perceives the discourse for creating and performing one’s self.” (P.112)

Idealised purpose of Islamic Educational Leadership In order to understand the idealised theoretical purpose of ‘educational leadership’ practice amongst Muslim educators, this study has adopted Ali’s (2005) Islamic Model of Leadership (Fig. 1). The aim of this is to demonstrate the overarching purpose and relevance of the idealised teacher-leader model to the development of Muslim societies and institutes.

Fig 1: Islamic Model of Leadership

 

(Ali, 2005, P.152) Ali (2005) utilises the Quranic concepts of Prophetic and Caliphal to represent two broad types of leadership processes. This study has taken these processes to embody the two types of educational leadership that Muslim educational programmes can develop. The Prophetic leadership model is represented by the notion of Idealism, as this entails a developmental path that is in adherence to the Quranic and Prophetic notion of ‘self- development’. This is a legacy system that seeks to develop and institutionalise societal processes. Individual leaders imbue and embody these dynamic and positive virtues of their society. The model, therefore, represents the epitome of human civilisation, whereby those who have been cultivated within the values and ethics of that culture-led society. From an educational perspective this entails the holistic development of individuals so that they can engage with the world and utilise their experience as a source of knowledge. Ali (2005) argues that, societies eschewing Personalism, promote an ethical and moral form of social Idealism and create great expectations within their cultures. Those cultures receptive to knowledge, diversity and dynamism transform this expectation into human development and produce ‘Great Persons’. (2005, P.1513) However, societies or communities that pursues Personalism, at the expense of

Idealism usually permeates towards a localised and fragmented culture that is characterised by its negativity and diffidence. Thus, a divided society produces the Ordinary man, or the Caliphal model, whereby leaders possess no superior quality to their subordinates and are feared as autocratic tyrants. Knowledge and culture are stifled and the institutionalisation of societal processes is arbitrary and non-existent. Ali (2005) notes that the Prophetic model is discernible in some small Muslim institutions but absent completely from large-scale Islamic organisations such as governments, corporations and educational institutes.

It is argued that the objective of Muslim educational institutes is, therefore, to develop these great persons as the next generation of leaders and teachers. This implies that the function of education in the Islamic tradition is to facilitate the development of the ‘Ulu-al-Albab’ (3:190) or “…people who possess or have developed an intellectual mind-set and utilise reason’ (Hassan, 2010, P.195). Hassan (2010) observes that the term is an expression of praise and appreciation that Allah (swt) applies to those who use their intellects in the best possible way. The expression, according to him, reflects great honour and high esteem conferred upon those who possess sound intellects. The great classical Muslim philosopher and scientist Al Razi (d.925) articulated that albab the plural of lubb, implied in its essence the most refined component, or part of, the whole (lubban). Razi suggested that the intellect possessed two aspects, an outward (zahir), the ‘aql and an inner (batin) dimension, the lubb. He postulated that the human act of reasoning at the initial stage is ordinary intellection (aqlan), which ascertains momentary truths through logical deduction. Rahman (2009) observes that the Quranic exhortations to think, question and reflect upon God’s creation are logical arguments that seek for man to discover God as opposed to justifying His existence. This process of intellection (aqlan) “develops a certain perception by lifting the veil from the mind” (Rahman, 2009, P.11). The perfection of this developmental process of the externalised intellect leads to what is described as the profound intellection (lubban). Rehman (2009) states that “a person who is endowed with such perception becomes correctly attuned to reality…he fears nothing but God… (As) God… is his sole helper…refuge and saviour” (P.11).

The ikhwan al safa exemplify the classical Islamic perspective on the potentiality of the human being: In the composition of man are united all the meanings (ma’ani) of the existents, both simple and compound...because man is the compound of the coarse body and the single spiritual soul. Because of this, sages named man the microcosm and the universe the big man. When man really knows himself in terms of the composition of his body, finesse of his structure and the manner of the actions of the powers of the soul in it, and the manifestations of the actions of the soul through it, namely firm works and perfect crafts, then he is ready to judge (qiyas) all the meanings (ma’ani) of the sensible by analogy with it, and infer from it all the meanings of the intelligible of the two worlds altogether. (Takeshita, 1987, pp.90-1) Al-Attas (1980) argues that this classical observation formulates the premise upon which the concepts of education and educational institutes have been developed in the Islamic tradition. Man, as the microcosmic embodiment (‘alam saghir) of the macrocosmic universe (al-‘alam al-kabir), inherently imbues the process through which knowledge is acquired and disseminated; this is exemplified by the classical Islamic understanding of higher educational institutes. The concept of the classical university was created to reflect the attributes of the ‘Perfect man’. (Al-Attas, 1980) Furthermore, Al-Attas (1993), Wan Daud (1989), Bilgrami and Ashraf (1985), Al Faruqi (1982), and Nakosteen (1964) delineate the pervading influence of the Islamic concept of a higher educational institute through the epithets that describe the sum, university and its parts, faculty. Wan Daud (1998) equates the general understanding of the modern notion of the university with the Islamic notion of the kulliyyah, a universal perspective that entails both theoretical and practical understanding of the development and implementation of norms and praxis. Wan Daud (1998) notes that the contemporary utilisation of the term faculty, demonstrates a reference to the human individual self as it is in the individual that “knowledge subsists, and that this knowledge is the governing principle determining his thought and action, the university must have been conceived in emulation of the general structure, in form, function and purpose, of man”. (Ibid, P.26)

Al-Attas (1980) argues that the term faculty has been directly translated from the Arabic quwwah, implying the inherent power of the human self and those that embody it through increased knowledge and experience. The epitome of this academic quwwah can be gleamed in the Islamic notion of al kursi, which equates to the contemporary academic position of the departmental chair. Wan Daud (2013) observes that there is ample evidence to demonstrate that in the classical Islamic tradition the scholars (ulema) had inherited the function of the ‘perfect man’. A meaning attributed to the popular ‘heirs of the prophet’ epithet implies that the scholars are incumbent to the Prophetic role models (uswah hasanah, 33:21) and so their norms and ideal form the idyllic framework for the development of Islamic education. It is therefore postulated that scholars and teachers embody the process and method to develop the relationship between the teacher and student through the educational process. In order to develop this relationship, classical and contemporary Muslim literature focuses specifically upon the Quranic references to the nafs as the object of development.

Several contemporary Muslim scholars, working from a Western methodological framework, stipulate that the Prophetic model of leadership can be examined through the lens of Max Weber’s (1962) Charismatic leadership model. 5

The Charismatic Leader This entails a general acceptance of the authority of the Prophet (s) due to his personal ‘charisma’, which Weber perceives to be “…a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional qualities” (P.xviii). These qualities and attributes are perceived to be divinely ordained and thus, the notion of charisma is derived from the outside as opposed to it being inculcated internally.

Hence, the Charismatic leader, according to Dabashi (1989), is motivated by a ‘metaphysical’ reality, which resonates with his followers in a holy, heroic sanctification of a divine mandate. As such, Weber (1968) is exceptionally keen to identify this form of leadership to be anti-institutional as it seeks to challenge the status quo of traditionally accepted and recognised authorities. Furthermore, Takim (2006, P.4) contends that the development of the ummah (Muslim community) was a reflection of the personal charisma of Muhammad (s) as he sought to replace tribal and hereditary affiliations with a communal bondage to a single divine power (Allah) through his exclusive agency of ‘Prophet-hood’. He argues that the defining quality of charismatic leadership is its ability to revolutionise society by confronting the traditionally accepted norms and concepts of sanctity. Takim (2006) observes that it is “…due to this factor that charisma becomes a creative and revolutionary social force in society, and an antithesis of routine” (P.3). Dabashi (1989) argues that the personage of Muhammad (s) encapsulates a holistic notion of leadership whereby his divine designation as a ‘Prophet’ and ‘Messenger’ is a continuation of the historical legacy of divine social revolution found in the JudeoChristian tradition. The implications for those who vested their faith in Muhammad (s) were an abandonment and deconstruction of the pagan customs, social affiliations and beliefs of an old-world. (Dabashi, 1989, P.34-5) Although the Prophetic tradition can be analysed within the Weberian conception of Charisma, the model by itself does not augment a direct engagement with the human personage of Muhammad (s) or the tradition he established. Thus, Sahin (2013) questions the blind application of charismatic authority to Muhammad’s (s) leadership status.6 He observes that seeking to explain his role by the sole use of charisma betrays the divine message and his purpose. However, it is postulated that as a role model, and a paragon of ultimate attainable human development, Muhammad (s) could encapsulate Burn’s (1978) notion of Charisma or Bass’s (1990) Idealised Influence. This is evident from the fact that Islam, as a reified social phenomenon, has been established upon the practical example of its emissary. Schimmel (1975, pp. 144-158) observes that the Islamic

tradition is “imitatio Muhammadi”, whereby it seeks to embody the Prophet’s (s) example in action. However, as Rahman (1982) argues, this does not simply imply blind imitation (taqlid) but entails an adherence to the way (Sunnah) of Prophet Muhammad (s), which is perceived to be an active living tradition. As the Prophet (s) is reported to have been a physical embodiment of the Quran, his words and actions, as canonised in the hadith literature, present the fundamental building blocks upon which a dynamic framework can be manifested. As such, Moten (2011) and Jamsari et al (2012) suggest that the foundation for Islamic leadership should be derived from the notion of ‘uswah hasanah’. This they argue can be identified and developed through education programmes that are centred on leadership ideals as embodied by Muhammad (s). This, for Sahin, symbolises the “art of being human”, which the Quran parlays as the educational process (2013, P.168-9). This implies that the Prophet (s) was, first and foremost, an educator and to follow his example is innately to be imbued with the virtues of education and teaching. (Haq, 1990, P.279)

The Teacher-Leader The Quran delineates succinctly the primary role of Muhammad (s) as a teacher (62:2) with exceptional character (68:4), sublime conduct (33:21), a tempered approach that endeared his followers to listen (3:159) whilst helping them to reflect (34:46) through guidance towards a true understanding so the followers can also bear witness. (12:108). (Haq, 1990, P.279) Therefore, the implication is that Muhammad (s), as a receiver of this divine educational methodology, is also its foremost practitioner. The Prophet (s) also demonstrates his divine educational incumbency as a teacher through a number of purported narrations. The most famous hadith states that, on entering the Masajid al Nabawi in Medina, he saw two groups of people: one group was reciting the Quran and supplicating, while the other group was engaged in learning and teaching. Upon seeing this, he is supposed to have said: “the ones reciting the Quran and supplicating May Allah give them what they seek if He desires

if not then He won’t. As for me, I will join those teaching and learning because I am a teacher. He sat with the second group” (Aulia-e-hind, 2014). Furthermore, Rahman asserts that the functionality of the Prophets and Teachers can be conceived as a simultaneous process, whereby the difference between the two roles is in degrees rather than quality or importance (2005, P.91). Therefore, the teachers, in Islamic tradition, are described as the heirs of the Prophets and “…anyone who desires to attend the assembly of the Prophets should visit the assembly of the teachers” (Ibid, P.92). For Fethullah Gulen (b. 1941), speaking through the prism of Islamic spirituality, the teachers render service to God through teaching and are, therefore, practising a form of worldly asceticism. (Afsaruddin, 2005-6)

Tarbiyah- Synthesising Education and Pedagogy It is postulated that the ideal for Islamic educational leadership is encapsulated in the process through which Allah utilises revelation to ‘nurture’, ‘teach’ and ‘guide’ Muhammad (s) and the preceding prophets. (3:159; 41:6; 68:4) Abdullah Sahin (2010) seeks to demonstrate that the divine educational programme embodied by Muhammad (s) is a dialectical dialogical relationship between the nurturer and the nurtured. His ‘cloud-grass’ theory utilises the Quranic analogy for the phenomenon of the weather to formulate the Islamic theory of education. Sahin (2010) propounds that the agency of the ‘clouds’ consisting of nourishment, the ‘rain’ acting as a nourisher to the ‘grass’. The classical Quranic lexicographer Raghib al- Isfahani (d.1108) had observed that the Arabic term utilised to describe these clouds (rabab)- derived from the attribute of Allah, Rabb implies ‘looking after’, ‘caring for’ and ‘leading’. Therefore, Sahin (2010) advocates the use of the term tarbiyah, a derivative of the attribute Rabb for the process of education, as opposed to talim, which implies mere instruction.7 Hence, Allah, the Rabb- al alamin, is a ‘Grand Educationalist’ who utilises human vessels to embody His message and the process by which it is to be administered.

Sahin (2013) states that the Quranic notion of tarbiyah encapsulates a method that entails the holistic development of an individual through a systematic process of nurturing, care and guidance. (17:24; 22:5; 26:18). It is the “gradual, stage by stage developmental process informing an organism’s growth until the complete actualisation of its potential” (Sahin, 2013, P.182). Thus, Sahin’s cloud-grass theory can be considered an ethical-caring model of teacher leadership based upon the Islamic worldview of tawhid, whereby tarbiyah implies a holistic developmental process of the self. Furthermore, Sahin (2013), using Rahman’s (1982) ‘double hermeneutical’ method, equates the contemporary notion of critical pedagogy with the classical Islamic understanding of tarbiyah. This suggests that pedagogical practices seeking to liberate individuals from indoctrinating banking models of education are in adherence to the Prophetic model. From a contemporary perspective, Freire’s (1970) assertions on the purpose of pedagogy for humanisation over dehumanisation resonate profoundly with the ethos of Islamic educational leadership. His definition of violence as “…any situation in which some individuals prevent others from engaging in the process of inquiry… ” (Freire, 1970, P.85) could be used to define the concept of justice in Islamic education. Freire (1970), in seeking liberation for the oppressed, preaches liberation for the oppressor also as it is a dialectical relationship and the two parties are in a mutual and reciprocal relationship. Therefore, cross-cultural ideas that are considered to be revolutionary and paradigm shifting, such as Freire’s (1970) conception of critical pedagogy, alongside Burns (1978) and Leithwood et al’s (1999) conception of transformational leadership, find support in this general understanding of Islamic educational leadership.   Pedagogy Although the focus upon pedagogy appears to be a new development in recently produced Islamic educational literature, there exists a rich and well-developed notion of pedagogy in the Islamic tradition. The Quranic narrations reiterate the literal and metaphorical methods of the Prophets to guide and educate society through

purification (tazkiyah) (2:151), pedagogical practices that encompass contemplation (tafakkur), remembrance (tadhakkur), reflection (tadabbur), understanding (tafaqquh), gathering insight (tabassur), discerning between matters (tawassum) and considering all perspectives (nazar) before deriving the instructive lesson (i’tibar) from the episode itself (Endut and Abdullah, 2009, P.6). Seminal works by Makdisi (1981) and Nakosteen (1964) venture to demonstrate that the methods of education such as the lecture (qira’at), note writing, (ta’liqat), disputation (tariqat an-nazar), dialectics (jadal) and discourse (munazara), as pioneered by Muslim educators, are all utilised in contemporary secular institutes. The classical Islamic educational process, as discussed in the literature (Ibn Abd AlBur, d.1044; Al-Mawerdi, d.1058, Al-Baghdadi, d. 1070; Al-Ghazali, d.1111; AlZarnugi, d.1194; Ibn Jamaa'h, d.1241), was, as per contemporary Western secular formations, perceived to be a means to an end that entailed the creation of reflective practitioners.8 Dewey’s (1933) notion of reflection, as a guarding against the uncritical, unquestioning attitude of following routine, is substantiated by the work of the cited classical Islamic scholars who delineate a case-based learning approach. Thus, the notion of critical thinking and questioning, are introduced through active classroom sessions. Subject and topics are contextualised and discussed with regard to a situation that the students are familiar with. Furthermore, the methods by which this was attained can be compared to Vygotsky’s (d. 1934) zone of proximal development (ZPD). (Vygotsky, 1978) The ZPD is recognised to be the distance between the actual developmental level, as determined by the individual attempting to solve a problem independently, in contrast to the potential developmental level, which is determined by the individual solving a problem with the aid of a teacher or in association with other advanced-level students. This approach to development entailed that students were guided through their intellectual developmental through a scaffolding method; senior students aided their teachers during lessons and acted as assistants, which not only helped the development of fellow students but also furthered individuals’ own learning abilities and enhanced their practical experience.

This is further highlighted by the notion of the ‘licence to teach’ (ijazah) (Al-Oadah, 1998) Here, students selected a teacher for a particular subject and then, as an apprentice, stayed with the teacher until they were deemed competent enough to teach the same subject as the teacher. However, the successful reception of the ijazah was not reliant on the regurgitation or theoretical understanding of the knowledge gained, but its practical application. (Al-Oadah, 1998) The ijazah therefore, symbolises what Sahin (2013) recognises to be reflective educational practice. This implies that the primary aim of the teacher-leader therefore, becomes to develop and produce the next successive generation of scholars and thinkers. In awarding the ijazah, the teachers recognised that the students were now their representatives and subsequently responsible for continuing the propagation of the specific discipline. Hence, the graduating students had to embody the moral and ethical values associated with the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge. Therefore, the classical method of Islamic education was not established within or around institutions but was a fluid and dynamic system that was centred around the possessors, transmitters and recipients of knowledge, the teachers and students. (Khaledi, 2002) From a contemporary perspective, Sahin (2013) attempts to demonstrate the pedagogical nature of the Quran by citing the argumentative style used to discuss and introduce natural and social phenomena through parables, metaphors, analogies and stories. This, Sahin argues, justifies the notion that the Quran recognises the human penchant for rationality and a logical thought process in formulating conclusions and understanding. (2013, P.187) According to Sahin, it is imperative that empirical analysis be undertaken to determine the status of current Islamic teaching practices. Sahin (2013) proposes a psychosocial methodological tool to assess the formation of Muslim religiosity and identity as a result of their educational experience. Sahin (2013), in reference to his ‘cloud-grass’ theory, observes that the ‘exploratory’ and ‘achieved’ faith commitment is akin to land that receives rainwater, absorbs it and then produces fresh vegetation. Conversely, the analogy of a ‘foreclosed’ faith commitment is akin to the land that simply absorbs the rainwater without producing any results. Whilst a parched,

unproductive, barren field represents a ‘diffused’ status that neither absorbs water nor brings forth any produce (Sahin, 2013, P.186). It can be argued that this is a useful approach towards assessing the success of existent teaching practices. Thus, for Sahin, the onus is on Muslim educationalists to focus upon correcting their orthopraxy, their practice of the faith rather then its tenets. This point then further justifies the dialectical tawhidic approach, whereby theory must be translated into practice. Sahin argues that the Quran, as a book of divine guidance, inherently assumes a transformative educational and pedagogical style that seeks to ‘transform’ the character of the human being. (2013, P.3) Although describing teachers with adjective-based leadership models is considered to be a futile exercise from the Islamic worldview, the ethos of transformational leadership, as a ‘virtuous’ and ‘moral’ theory, resonates with the Islamic ideals.

The Ethical and Moral base of Islamic Leadership Jamsari et al (2012) suggest that Islamic leadership models should be based upon the Quranic assertion to guide men to the right path. Muhammad (s), as the example par excellence, inherently imbued this trait because the Quran states that the Prophet (s) is “…of great moral character” (68:4). Therefore, “He who obeys the Messenger has obeyed Allah” (4:80; 39:33) implies that the aspiration of individuals should be a complete obeisance to Allah by emulating the Prophet (s) through the development of their ethical and moral turpitude. Even Western secular scholars such as Lickona (1991), building upon both Vygotsky’s (1978) and Noddings’ (2007) work; stipulate that the role model status of the teacher encapsulates a complete behavioural pattern both in personal and public life. Contemporary Muslim proponents of Islamic leadership such as Kaleh and Samier (2013), Moten (2011), Toor (2008), Jabnoun (2008), Ali (2005), Beekun and Badawi (1998), Attas and Daud (1997) alongside classical Islamic scholars such as Al-

Mawardi (d.1058), Al Ghazali (d.1111) Ibn Taymiyyah, (d.1300) and Ibn Khaldun (d.1377) proffer a plethora of traits and characteristics that are expected of would-be leaders. However, the notion of character trait in Islamic thought is not synonymous with the secular Western idea of a trait. Although there is no contention over the definition of a trait as “...a distinguishing quality or characteristic, typically belonging to a person...” (Oxford Dictionary), the problem is in the understanding of the notion of trait. The generally accepted Western perspective, founded upon Allport’s (1961) work into personality theory, stipulates that traits are a stable and consistent pattern of behaviour, which can ultimately be identified and modified. In contrast, the Islamic perspective suggests that the notion of traits, when discussed from the tawhidic paradigm become latent potentialities. Al-Attas (1993), whilst synthesising a number of classical perspectives, promulgates the ideal that man, as a microcosmic representation of the macrocosm, naturally imbues the innate attributes of Allah (sbt) in a finite capacity. Thus, classical scholars such as Bur (d.1044), Mawerdi (d.1058), Baghdadi (d. 1070), Ghazali (d. 1111), Zarnuji (d.1194) and Jamaa'h (d.1241) believed that every individual human being is innately capable of any possible action to a limited degree as only Allah (sbt) is infinite and eternal. (AlMerdawi, 1983, P.79-80) This understanding, therefore, challenges the old traditional conceptions of elitism, feudality and sovereignty by empowering people to realise their own potential. As such, the Islamic pedagogical approach seeks to liberate the human being from committing injustice to others (and, by default, themselves) by acknowledging and developing the latent potentialities of their followers and students. Hence, atomist discussions of isolated traits, although useful for research purposes, cannot be considered as holistic renditions of an individual. These include the notions of integrity, justice and honesty (3:104; 4:58; 5:1; 16:90; 17:34), whereby leaders demonstrate the ethical-moral principles that imply keeping their word, pledges, deeds and promises by upholding the Sharia. These notions are further supported by traits relating to equality and consideration (3:159; 49:13; 49:11) that counter the unethical actions of discrimination, prejudice, racism and slander through respectful non-judgemental behaviour. This forces leaders to act in humility (2:58; 3:199;

4:154…57:16) as they conduct all their actions for the sole pleasure of Allah, seeking their reward from Him only (48:29; 73:20; 76:9). Therefore, the ethos behind this life is encapsulated in the notion of jihad (2:3; 2:195; 8:74: 9:24), a perpetual struggle for personal and social development that requires patience (3:17; 3:200; 6:34; 103:3), which, according to a narration of Muhammad (s), accounts for half of the faith. However, the actualisation of the latent potentialities is dependent on the acceptance and understanding of tawhid (2:163; 2:177; 2:255; 3:2…69:48), which can only be attained through “Service to Allah” (sbt) (3:79).

Service The Quranic litigation upon the essential purpose of man entails that Allah (sbt) ‘created Man to only serve Him’ (1:5; 3:79; 51:56). The second half of the shahadat declaration evidently demonstrates the significance of this concept in that Muhammad (s) is a servant (‘abd) before he is the Messenger of Allah (s) (“I bear witness that Muhammad (s) is the servant and messenger of Allah (sbt)”). The status of ‘abd Allah (‘Servants of Allah’, 19:30; 72:19) has also been conferred upon the previous Prophets without exception. Murata and Chittick (1994) observe that the Quranic term ibadah (serve) connotes a relationship which, in the first instance, consists of worship but more significantly it implies an awareness of reverence and devotion to a Master, as can be evinced from another closely associated term Ubudiyyah. (1996, P.274) Thus, the Quran states that humanity and all other created beings are ‘servants of Allah’ (4:172, 17:1, and 7:194). The Quran utilises the term ‘abd (servant) to address the human being on ninety-nine occasions. (Erfani, 2004, P.674-77) Thus demonstrating the relationship between Himself and His creation, whereby Allah is the Master and insan (human being) His servant (4:172, 17:1, 7:194). However, the Quranic notion of service and servant do not equate to the notion of unconditional slavery, whereby the master dominates the will of his slave, but entails a developmental relationship. Attas and Wan Daud (2007) argue that ibadah (service), as devotional acts of worship such as the daily prayers (salat), the annual fast (saum) and pilgrimage (hajj) or

giving of person or wealth for communal benefit (zakat), formulates the fundamental ethos upon which Islam stands. This is a process that begins with individuals turning inwards to propagate the development of their individual selves through acts of prayer, meditation and fasting whilst physical acts of charity and struggle, purify the self and inculcate a sense of shared responsibility with society. Therefore, the worship aspect of ibadah entails the establishment of a personal relationship with Allah (sbt), whereby the human self becomes aligned to His will. This constitutes the foundation for the notion of leadership in Islamic thought and is represented by the inward sapiential spiritual tradition of Islam. As per the tawhidic argument, there is an external manifestation of ibadah as service to Allah, by upholding the natural, ethical and moral laws within society. Beekun and Badawi (1999) seek to explore the realisation of this moral awareness through a conceptual human developmental model. Figure 3.2 Moral Basis of Islamic Leader

(Beekun and Badawi, 1999, P.17) The concentric circles in the model represent four stages of human development in relation to its moral character, represented by the five points of the star.9

Iman (33:36) formulates the primary essence, embodying and fulfilling the most fundamental tenets of the faith as parlayed by the Quran and Sunnah. Once this stage has been attained, one enters into the state of Islam (11-96-98). Mawdudi (d.1979) observes, “Iman is the seed and Islam the fruition” (Beekun and Badawi, 1999, P.21). Here, the individual attains the peace and harmony required to be actively aware of his duty towards Allah, His Creation and the Self. An overwhelming awareness of this reality leads to taqwa (2:2-5; 16:90; 2:177), whereby an individual, a muttaqin, becomes fully conscious of Allah’s all-encompassing presence and his own accountability to Him. Once this stage is heightened to the state that one’s deeds and actions are conducted, not in fear of, but love of Allah, the state of ihsan (3:146-8) is attained. Here, Allah (sbt) loves the Muhsinin, thus asserting the highest state of moral human development. Therefore, for an individual to traverse the path from iman, being a mumin (a believer) to a stage whereby Allah loves the individual, a Muhsinin, is dependent upon the level of realisation of each of the five individual virtues. Although all of the virtues are syncretic, the notion of ‘adl (justice or balance) (5:8; 25:67-68, 72-73; 4:58) establishes the parameters for an equitable, just and morally upright individual and society. This also confirms the tenancy of the inherent amanah (trust), (8:27; 12:54-55) placed upon man. Thus, an individual becomes both aware and responsible for his actions and seeks to act in birr (goodness), (2:177) in all situations so that they develop a habit of ‘ahd (keeping promises) (5:1) and are, thus, relied upon to be sincere, truthful and honest. The continuous effort to maintain and evolve oneself, by focusing on each virtue as an essence to be embodied, is mujahadah (striving to continuously develop oneself). (2:44; 22:77-78; 53:39) According to Attas, (2007), a failure to engage in this perpetual process of selfanalysis and development is considered by the Quran to be an injustice to the personal self. Hence, the term utilised to describe man, insan, is derived from the term to forget (nisiya). Attas (1997, P.15) states that man has been composed with forgetfulness (nisyan) because he forgot to fulfill his duty and purpose even though he testified to the truth and sealed a covenant with Allah. (33:72)

A Responsibility and Trust The Quranic exhortation propounds that insan is the Khulafa-fil al-ard (2:30, 6:165), whereby the term Khalifah, derived from the verb Khalafa, implies succession. Thus, the khalifah is one who succeeds a previous creation.10 Abdullah (1982, P.48) cites the term yastakhlifuhum as denoting the promise of Allah (sbt) that He will grant the inheritance of the earth to the believers as He did to others before them. Thus, the present tense yastakhlif, used in Quran, denotes the process of one group succeeding another. Hence, this civilisation has been made inheritors of the earth as exemplified in the narratives of the Prophets Musa (s) (7:128-129), Hud (s) (11:57) and Daud (s) (38:26). This entails that the insan (human being) in his status as Khulafa-fil-ard must accept the al hayat al dunya (worldly existence; 13:25; 32:21) as a responsibility that is imbued in his purpose. This constitutes the amanah (divine trust; 33:72) whereby insan recognises the potential for the hasanah fi al dunya (blessing of the world; 2:29; 3:145; 22:65) to be the gateway for attaining the hasanah fi al akhirah (blessing of the hereafter; 9:12; 16:122; 40:51). Sahin observes that that the “management of the earth, just like the care of the self, is entrusted to humans in order for God to see how they are going to discharge their responsibility.” (2013, P.201) However, the Quran is extremely clear in that insan is not the controller (musaytirin) of the affairs of society (88:22) because all power (quwata) belongs to Allah (2:165). insan in his capacity as Khalifah, is an ‘abd (servant), mudhakkirun (reminder; 88:21) and wakilin (guardian; 39:41) of Allah (sbt). Thus, Prophet Muhammad (s) advised his followers: “do not ask for a position of authority, for if you are granted this position as a result of your asking for it, you will be left alone (without God’s help to discharge the responsibilities involved in it), and if you are granted it without making any request for it, you will be helped (by God in the discharge of your duties)”. (Muslim, 1652, 4487)

Therefore, actively campaigning for or pursuing positions of prestige, power and authority is denounced, as the Quran states that “…It is We Who portion out between them their livelihood in the life of this world: and We raise some of them above others in ranks, so that some may command work from others...” (43:32) Beekun and Badawi (1999) observe that this implies the existence of a divine relationship, as a psychological contract between the leader and the led (6:165). Al-Attas and Daud (2007, P.6) declare that as insan has been furnished with the ability for ‘free will’, the moral imperative is upon him to ensure that the relationship maintains justice (‘adl). Therefore, as this relational process is divinely ordained it becomes a responsibility (taklif) that every individual is accountable (mas’uliyah) for himself before Allah (6:164; 17:15, 84). The notion of maintaining justice in relationships, further demonstrates the pertinence of the dialectical dialogical approach in the Islamic tradition and is encapsulated in the Quranic concept of Shura (mutual consultation).

Consultation and Followership Shura (consultation) holds such primacy that the Qur'an advises the Prophet (s) to consult his followers in taking decisions (3:159) and equates it to the acts of devotional worship, such as prayer (salaat) and charity (zakat) (42:38). Islamic literature is replete with major examples of Muhammad (s) engaging in consultation with his companions and adhering to their counsel. Often cited cases encompass: the advice from the companions to encamp the Muslim force between the water wells and the pagan Makkahan army at the battle of Badr (2nd year H, 625 CE);11 his decision to attack the pagan Makkahan army based upon the collective decision of the Medinese Muslims at the battle of Uhud (3rd year H, 626 CE); heeding the guidance of his spouse and ending his state of Ihram in front of his dejected companions after signing the Agreement of Hudaybiyyah (1st year H, 628 CE). Moten (2011) argues that in classical Islamic thought leaders were not considered to be sovereign princes but primus interpares. Thus, a narration from an eminent companion of the Prophet (s) and one of the earliest scholars in the Islamic tradition,

Muadh b. Jabal (d. 640), clarifies the Islamic stance on the perception and role of leadership:

“Our leader is one of us; if he implements among us the teachings ... of the Quran and the Sunnah, we shall have him over us. If he goes against it, we shall depose him. If he commits theft, we shall amputate his hand; if he commits adultery, we shall flog him ... He will not hide himself from us, nor will he be self-conceited ... He is a person as good as we are…” (Moten, 2011, P.345)

Although a majority of the literature relating to the Shura aspect of leadership is focused on political appointment, there is ample evidence to suggest that within an educational setting the acceptance of a teacher was based upon the students. Thus, Shura entails a mutual process, whereby as leaders seek authentic consultation and counsel from their followers, the followers in turn judge the conduct of the leader in consideration to the Sharia. The essence of this concept is immortalised in the inauguration speech of the first of the ‘Rashidun Khaliphs’, Abu Bakr (d. 643) “Obey me as long as I obey God and His messenger, if I disobey God and His messenger, then you owe me no obedience” (Khan, 2014). Classical Islamic scholar Al-Mawardi (d. 1058) argued that this statement demonstrated absolutely the abhorrence towards blind imitation and therefore introduced the notion of a reciprocal element to leadership that empowered the followers. (Al-Merdawi, 1983) This was formalised by the Quranic (48:10; 60:12) notion of bayaat (oath of allegiance) whereby, from an educational context, individuals willingly selected and pledged individual allegiance to a teacher. The adequacy, competency and proficiency of teachers were in most cases in the early classical Islamic tradition dependent solely on the student’s judgements. Furthermore, it is only due to the student’s account of their great teachers that knowledge about their works and lives can be examined. Hence, it can be argued summarily that the follower element in the Islamic tradition is as pertinent to the discussion on ‘leadership’ as the leader element. As such, the role and value of the sahaba (companions) is considered tantamount to being sacred, as the entire corpus of the Prophetic tradition has been established upon it.

Conclusion: Defining the Islamic Concept of Educational Leadership In seeking to define and derive an understanding of ‘educational leadership’ from an Islamic perspective, a brief introduction to the Islamic worldview is essential. The ontological reality of Islam, as encapsulated in the notion of Unity (tawhid), is established upon a holistic perception of life that originates from a Single Source, the Creator. Therefore, fragmented and discursive approaches that seek to isolate and study phenomena as a series of independent processes, contradict the Islamic worldview. The comprehension of the tawhidic worldview is, however, only possible if the concept of Knowledge (‘ilm), its epistemology, is conceived in duality. The rational intimates a dialectical process that is mutual, reciprocal, balanced and harmonious. From an educational perspective, this implies that both the divine and secular aspects of knowledge must be comprehended to arrive at an understanding (tawhid). Furthermore, the dialogical nature of the sacred revelations reveals the essence of the educational process as a series of conversations, questions and answers revealing Allah (sbt) to be an Educator, a teacher to His Prophets. The essence of this relationship is imbued in the revelation and content of the Quran, whereby Muhammad (s), from a human perspective, embodies the divine educational model. As a role model, Muhammad (s) is acknowledged to be a perfect example of a leader, or Imam, who goes before his people in the capacity of teacher. Hence, from a contemporary (albeit secular) perspective, his leadership has been classified as Charismatic. Although the notion of Charisma connotes a heroic projection and is disparaged as a feudal ideal by post modernist and critical theorists, it nevertheless addresses a crucial component of the leadership process, the leader. The argument in this study contends that educational leadership in the Islamic perspective cannot be discussed in isolation from the individual or the context. Burns (1978) and Bass’s (1998) Transformation/Transformational ideal recognises this salient notion and, thus, provides a useful model to contrast with the Islamic perspective.

The inherent notion of morality and consultation between the leader and the led is discernable in Islamic thought as the absolute requirement for justice. This entails that individuals are always striving to uphold the divine, ethical, moral and natural laws of creation in their conduct. Furthermore, the argument presented by contemporary Islamic educational theorists-such as Sahin (2013), Memon (2011), Shah (2006) and Zeera (2001) calls for the Prophetic model of leadership to be conceived in terms of education. This implies that the pedagogical practice of the Prophet (s) imbues the essence of leadership in Islamic thought. The overt emphasis on the Divine evidently demonstrates the inherent spiritual nature of the Islamic perspective, as the purpose of insan is to ‘Serve Allah’. This entails the establishment of a relationship between the follower and the followed. Therefore, the concept of educational leadership in Islamic thought is encapsulated by the teacher-student relationship, within which the aim of the teacher, as leader, is to aid the development (tarbiyah) of the student. As tarbiyah is considered to be a process between individuals, it naturally assumes a relational character. In comparison, the post-modernist, post-industrial12 conceptions of adjective based leadership models (e.g. ‘Servant’, ‘Spiritual’, ‘Transformative’, ‘Charismatic’, ‘Ethical’, ‘Moral’, ‘Authentic’, ‘Distributed’ Systems and ‘Chaos’) have also sought to reflect this understanding. (Timperley, 2005) This recent paradigm shift in contemporary Western scholarship, as evinced from Joseph Rost’s (1991, P.58) definition of leadership as a “collaborative endeavor among group members” whereby “the essence of leadership is not the leader, but the relationship”, can be conceived as step towards the Islamic perspective. Thus, the assertions put forth indicate that leadership is the process that encapsulates both parties (leaders-followers) in mutual engagement. In a societal human context, this represents the dialectical challenge, whereby two opposing forces must be harmonised to accomplish an objective and the attainment of perfection. Therefore, the notion of relationship in Islamic education entails a responsibility for upholding the ethical and moral principles between the teacher and student. This implies that the relationship is a shared responsibility whereby

individuals recognised to be the foremost in knowledge, piety and ethical virtues are accepted as teachers by their students. This furthers the importance of followers in the Islamic leadership equation. Henceforth, the overarching model of educational leadership derived from the Classical Islamic worldview, contemporary Islamic Institutes and the idealised Prophetic model begin with the individual teacher and their students. The suggestion presented here does not seek to negate the discussion of other leadership models relating to the administration and management of Islamic Institutes but rather focuses on the heart of the debate; the notion of education in Islamic thought entails a holistic conception of self-development and realisation through a nurturing process. Therefore, the educator is an incumbent to the intellectual and spiritual growth of the students. This study defines educational leadership from the Islamic perspective to be:

“The exploration and analysis of the narrative between the learned and the learner” This suggests that Islamic education, conceived from a dialogical process, is a continuous narrative. The conversation pertains to the purpose of the human being as Allah’s (sbt) servant. Therefore, in the first instance, service understood as a relationship between man and Allah and, secondly, as a responsibility. In normal human relations, this epitomises the relationship between a leader and follower. The notion of responsibility is in upholding the ethical and moral virtues in the relationship. Therefore, in an educational context the narrative is represented by tarbiyah (holistic education, nurturing) and those who form a part of it naturally encompass the leadership process.        

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(21:73) Verses 21:72-73 read in part, “We . . . made them leaders who would guide [others] in accordance with Our behest: for He inspired them [with a will] to do good works, and to be constant in prayer, and to dispense charity: and Us [alone] did they worship” (1980/2003, p. 553). “Leaders” is the plural of Imams, while “worship” derives from ‘abd/ibadah, and “inspire” derives from wahy. Lane (1863/1968) also noted that the Prophet (s) is referred to as “The imam of the Ummah” (that is the people or the community), “it being incumbent on all to imitate his rule of life or conduct” (p. 91). 2 Literally means: “a person . . . whose example is followed, or who is imitated . . . any exemplar . . . to a people” (Lane, 1863/1968, Vol. 1, p. 91). The term derives from the root amma, meaning, “to go before” or “lead in front of.” 3 See Bibliography for Reference Method of Qurans used p.263 4 Gregg’s (2005) text is a psychological survey of the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region. Gregg argued “Islam is most directly practiced in withdrawal from this-worldly affairs and in a psychological reorientation to God, the Prophet, the Qur’an, the earth’s axis (Mecca)...and the judgment day” (p. 112). In this context, Gregg acknowledged the “spiritual and psychological role [the Prophet] plays as the ideal man,” noting “it is widely taught that Muslims should take him as their model” (p. 119). 5 The etymology of the word “charisma” lies in the name of the Greek goddess Charis, who personified grace, beauty, purity, and altruism (Oakes, 1997) 6 The view that charismatic leaders only emerge from outside institutional structures has been questioned. Michael Hill, in particular, has raised the possibility of “latent charisma” that arises from within rather than outside of routinized in- situations. This challenges the rigid demarcation between the three Weberian categories of authority discussed above. (Hill, 1973, p.172) 7 Interestingly the term ‘education’ from the Latin ‘educare’ also implies ‘nurturing’ and ‘leading’. 8 For an extremely detailed account of Classical Muslim Educational Institutes, Educators and Curriculum including provide rich descriptive accounts of the teachers, their relationship with the students and the pedagogical methods utilised for learning and dissemination, see doctoral projects by Khaled Al-Khaledi, 2002, Khalid Fahad Al-Oadah, 1998 9 Aabed’s (2006) doctoral thesis is set in the North American context identifies ten essential personal qualities of a Muslim leader qualified by its secular equivalents. Thus he states that a Muslim leader must have: (1) Yaqin or conviction; (2) Shura or mutual consultation/decision making; (3) ma’refah or knowledge; (4) fasahah or eloquence; (5) ‘al-adl or justice; (6) sabr or patience; (7) iqdam or enterprise; (8) leen or leniency; (9) tadhyah or self-sacrifice; and (10) taqwa or humility. 10 For a detailed discussion on the etymology and philology of the term ‘Khalafa’ as well as the discussion on whom Adam (or man) succeeded see: Abdullah, A. S (1982) 11 The name of the battle came from the fact that it took place in the neighbourhood of water wells known as wells of Badr. Based on the advice of one of the companions of the Prophet (s) it was decided that the Muslims’ camp be established between the attacking army and the wells. Thus, the Muslim army forms a barrier between the Pagan’s army and the wells. Muslims can then access water from the wells, but their enemy would have no access. This was a great strategic advantage that contributed to the success of the Muslims’ campaign. 12 Joseph Rost of University of San Diego popularised the shift from the industrial concept of leadership (leader-centred view) to a paradigm he calls the post-industrial concept of leadership. In his book Leadership for the Twenty-First Century (1991), he articulates a definition of leadership based on this post-industrial perspective. A definition he believes is more consistent with contemporary organisational life. Rost's definition says that leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes.