2
5/17/20155/17/2015
5/17/2015
5/17/2015
Ahmed KargboAhmed Kargbo TerrorismA Systemic Approach for Emergency PreparednessPPPA - 8321 Instructor: David Milen TerrorismA Systemic Approach for Emergency PreparednessPPPA - 8321 Instructor: David Milen
Ahmed Kargbo
Ahmed Kargbo
Terrorism
A Systemic Approach for Emergency Preparedness
PPPA - 8321
Instructor: David Milen
Terrorism
A Systemic Approach for Emergency Preparedness
PPPA - 8321
Instructor: David Milen
Table of Contents
1.0 Why Policy Paper 1
2.0 Why the terrorist groups sustained their momentum 4
3.0 Measures to prevent another attack 5
4.0 The Impact of the War 7
5.0 The Discussion 8
6.0 The evolution of terrorism 10
7.0 Figure 1. 12
Number of transnational terrorist incidents (ITERATE), 1968–2011 12
8.0 Figure 2. 12
Proportion of transnational and domestic terrorist events with casualties 13
Causes and roots of terrorism 13
9.0 How preventable is a similar catastrophic event in the United States? 15
10.0 Bioterrorism threat assessment 15
11.0 Emergency Responders and Preparedness 16
20.0 Challenges to address 16
12.1 Recommendations to consider 16
13.0 Effectiveness of counterterrorism policies 17
13.1 Why biochemical is a major discussion in terrorism 17
14.0 Why stockpiles of biochemical warfare agents maintained. 19
15.0 What steps needed in light of the historical context of bioterrorism? 19
16.0 State of biochemical warfare and terrorism 20
17.0 Economic consequences of terrorism 22
18.0 Figure 3. 23
Cumulative number of transnational terrorist incidents by target type, 1968–2010 23
19.0 How the war on terror becomes the war within, and difficult to win. 24
20.0 Gallop Poll conducted on March 5-5, 2015, (Justin McCarthy Gallup 2015). 30
21.0 Agencies coordination post 9/11 33
22.0 Factors stopping agency collaboration 33
23.0 Benefits to the centralization emergencies and functions 34
24.0 Conclusion and Further Future Directions (TAKE OUT) 34
25.0 References: 36
1.0 Why Policy Paper
On September 11 2001, the United States of America became a completely changed nation when the new cast from every car radio, television, and existing social network channels went on an emergency broadcast mode, reporting a plane has just stroked the world trade center tower in New York, and followed by an alert that further information will be provided as it flows in. Every news station was reporting the same information, followed by the other plane hitting the other twin tower of the world trade center again in New York, which immediately raised the suspicion of terrorism Minutes later, the report of the other plane crashing in Pennsylvania was reported, followed by the other plane hitting the Pentagon in Washington DC. All these attacks happened within a ninety minutes time frame. The President of the United States George W. Bush, ordered a lock down of all aviation activities in the United States with orders to militarily bring down any flight in the skies of the US. Military bases, federal, State, and local government buildings and other public facilities were closed with limited access to essential personnel, while the President and Congress shifter into over drive to coin the appropriate investigation, calming the worries of the nation, while getting a response to the perpetrators upon identification.
These events changed the way of life for not only Americans, but the global community. The images of such attack caused an indelible trauma and a sense a patriotism to many Americans. As questions are raised, fears are being curtailed, tempers flaring, and personal revenge becoming eminent amongst ordinary citizens against individual suspects, the global community expressed shared willingness to support the United States in any action to retaliate the barbaric act, which did not only injure and killed US citizens on their own soil, but other countries nationals were victims of the horrific act as well.
As it became clear that that the victims comprises of nationals from various countries and religious backgrounds, the perpetrators were Muslim extremists, a wrath of retaliation was unleashed against Muslims and their families, and houses of worships throughout the United States.
The President and Congress declared war on these extremists' terrorist groups and their accomplices where ever they may be hiding, including training grounds, finance channels, and any country/s serving as hosts to these groups or any of the aforementioned activities or services, to bring them to justice.
The finger pointing, the emotional and mental abuse from the public was felt by people of the Islamic faith because of their religion, and being scrutinized. The urge and call to retaliate militarily received the highest support from the American people and the need to form an international coalition was welcomed by every country, to send a message of solidarity, while the country was finding every opportunity to heal.
The United States Patriotism was at the highest level with every vehicle displaying a US national flag, which translated to the highest level of military volunteerisms; a surge not seen re-enlistment by veterans including first time enlistment as well.
Even though there is a natural reservation for the uniformed services by people of color, the highest percentage of recruits after the 911 attacks according to the General Accountability Office (GAO) study of 2005, were among blacks making up to nearly 15 percent of Army recruits, which also represents the highest recruitment-to-population ratio of any group, at 1:44 versus 1.01 for white Americans, (Joy-Ann Reid 2013).
The was in part fueled by the anxiety and frustration of having more than 3,000 people killed during that attack that shook the United States to its core, according to Joy-Ann Reid (2013), and therefore led the U.S. into the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq respectively, and justifiably due to the attacks of 911, and the case of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) made by the Bush administration. As a result, US citizens were willing and ready to do anything to counter the threat, without paying any attention to the consequences that might ensue from giving government unfettered actions, (Calvin Lawrence Jr., 2011).
American citizens and visiting tourists to the United States became subjected to government principles compromising public privacy for safety through the USA Patriot Act of 2001.This act enabled law enforcement agencies to search personnel records including medical, among other things, telephone, financial records, and even library records in pursuit of terrorists, without warrants.
2.0 Why the terrorist groups sustained their momentum
Even though America had a long history of constant spying on its citizens by the police, particularly black people because of the long standing notion that any black man is potentially a criminal menace dating way back to slavery era and the endemic fear of white slave-owners toward the masses of unpaid laborers, Calvin Lawrence Jr., (2011), the attacks of September 11, extended the methodology by segregating American Muslims, or anyone who appeared to be Muslim will automatically fall under the suspicious gaze of authorities and fellow citizens.
There was across the board suspicion on Muslims and particularly citizens from Middle Eastern countries which we became more obvious particularly at the airports, in the streets, and particularly more evident when Muslims were seeking to build a mosque downtown New York City, around ground zero. Eventually, the instances of hate crimes spiked against Muslims with the chilling effects also affecting African Americans and Hispanics as well, (Joy-Ann Reid 2013).
Many bills were also rushed through congress including the Patriot Act curtailing many civil liberties of US citizens, and later challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), and the Departments of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA); among the many of the 263 government agencies were created after 9/11, creating new government jobs with benefits enjoyed by all Americans of all backgrounds, including large numbers of African-Americans nationwide, (Joy-Ann Reid 2013).
The most significant irony of the attacks of September 11, and the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq which were opposed by Barak Obama the son of a Muslim turned Atheist, was his successful election as Presidency of the United States, from his vehement opposition to the war
While the profiling of minority groups of mostly Middle Eastern continues, and the passage of the Patriot Act in congress to empower law enforcement officers the questions among law makers remains why the attacks concentrated in the United States, and what next, and how to prevent it.
3.0 Measures to prevent another attack
To understand the motivation and find out reasons for the attacks, many congressional hearings were held and different reasons were being suggested why did it happen? America, according to Ron Pau Sr., "is to blame for the 9/11 attacks" because of America's intervention in the Middle East and he continues" when you intervene in another country, they are going to push back" (CNN iReport, 2001).
The National Security Agency instituted the collaboration of all intelligence agencies and the sharing of intelligence to provide comprehensive national security summary that will be factual in the wake of the faulty Iraqi intelligence on WMD.
Al Qaeda according to CNN iReport, (2001), fundamentally sees American influence the biggest obstacle to the desire of establishing an Islamic state, and therefore must be expelled including all westerners from Muslim lands.
Al-Qaida would resolve to use every arsenal in their disposal and ones they can set their hands on, to accomplish their goal, through the unification of all Muslims to establish an Islamic Nation that would adhere to ruling of the first caliphs, CNN iReport, and (2001).
Over the last couple years of fighting the unconventional war, with trillions of dollars ($4.4 Trillion and Counting spent on the US Wars through 2014, Costs Of War (n.d.), and scores of lives over 6,800 US troops lost, 875,000 disabled, according to VA disability claims already approved through 2013, by veterans suffering from traumatic brain injuries, PTSD, amputations, and spinal cord injuries, the war on terror continues with a no end in sight, instead, a revived motivation from new recruits changing tactics and adaptable behaviors. It becomes even more crucial to ask the questions; are we winning? If not, where and what do we need to do more? (Costs of War n.d.).
The incidences of terror have spiked in recent years, as a result of the global war on terror, and the terrorist groups now have far reaching loyalists than ever, with or without a central leadership, contrasting the popular belief in the early days of the war that the decapitation of the terrorist regime of killing or arresting the leadership of Osama Bin Laden and his lieutenants, the groups will fall. Instead, the groups maintained a shared ideology with no financial obligations or delegated responsibilities, but with sustained motivation. They have become more embolden, even more lethal, and a larger pool of recruits and attractive recruitment messages and methodologies. Each group is financially independent, with well-kept tracks to avoid any trail, and the use of very good adaptability skills. Contrary to the conventional wisdom that US military power that destroyed the Taliban in Afghanistan and deposed Saddam Hussein the dictator, with the ability to do so anywhere in the world has help to conceive the war in Syria, with tremendous opportunities
The fall of Afghanistan, Iraq, and the continued war in Syria have created new opportunities for terrorist groups to rally supporters and sympathizers for their ideology and galvanize to pursue their goals through every medium.
According to the latest Global Terrorism Index released by the Institute for Economics and Peace, 2013 attacks as reported by Christopher Ingraham, (2014), there have been a high number of terrorist incidents since the year 2000, with a worldwide increase from more than 1,500 in 2000 then, to nearly 10,000 in 2013, (Christopher Ingraham , 2014).
This increase according to the report is primarily due to U.S. foreign policy making the problem worse: "The rise in terrorist activity coincided with the US invasion of Iraq which created large power vacuums in the country, allowing different factions to surface and become violent." (Christopher Ingraham, 2014).
4.0 The Impact of the War
According to the Harvard Kennedy School of Government, the U.S. investment on the Iraq and Afghanistan wars will top between $4 and 6 trillion, with additional financial obligation on anti-terrorism efforts in other parts of the world.
Though the United States have not suffered any major terrorist attacks on U.S. soil since 9/11, the Global Terrorism Index numbers presents a bleak assentation that did not doubt the effectiveness of this expenditures, but stated that the United States "ham-handed foreign policy is actually a destabilizing factor in world affairs" (Linda J. Bilmes 2013)
It is also evident that, the same foreign policies would have contributed to the motivation of ISIS the terrorist group. Their recruitment capacity has grown over the last few months and years, while becoming very tactically astute and able to retain ground. Their influence is now international and able to entice western sympathizers to join their course. In addition to foreign policy, and economic inequality, social justice has also been added as a reason for the growing size of these groups, and why majority of the current ISIS recruits now come from the west where the principles of fundamental human rights and equality to the law are not only preached, but practiced. More importantly, these new Islamic converts and recruits are educated, and cherish their newly found extremist ideology presented to them by ISIS.
President Bush's address to the first responders on ground zero with the bull horn uplifting their morale, and General Collin Powell, US Secretary of State during the Bush administration's presentation of the WMD reasons why the United Nations should support the removal of Saddam Hussein from power was seen as the catalyst that fermented the global war on terror and the long and reluctant retaliation by the terrorists who would use the very war as a war against Islam, to galvanize support for their campaign.
5.0 The Discussion
The focus now is to have a comprehensive look at how the focus shifted from eclectic complacent federal, State, and local systems and agencies that functions as silos, became transformed or at least are being transformed to create a cul-de-sac kind of cohesive stems and agencies that work to inoculate the American citizens (sympathizers) from being absorbed by the works of terrorist who are enthralled or just fascinated in causing mayhem to the west, but particularly the United States of America.
The events of September 11, 2001, and its aftermath according to Todd Sandler, (2013), provoked an analytical literature on terrorism that identified key areas of intense research interests such as the causes of terrorism, attack trends, the economic impacts, counterterrorism effectiveness, the level of preparedness, the existing and perceived relationship of terrorism and liberal democracies,
and differences and similarities between domestic and transnational terrorism. In his article "The
Analytic Study of Terrorism" (Todd Sandler, 2013), noted the tremendous developments that have
evolved since that horrific attack on September 11, on the study of networked terrorists and the
impact of counterterrorism foreign aid, that can be effectively used to recognize the growth of
terrorism, learn the determination of terrorist groups, and how to foster international
counterterrorism cooperation, (Todd Sandler, 2013).
Though terrorists can be perceived to be irrational according to research scholars such as Sprinzak, however, Joanisval Goncalves, (2014), see the argument differently by arguing that terrorists particularly sucide bombers, have an inherent tactical advantage in simplicity and cost, and in goal orientation than or over terrorist using conventional methodologies.
Sucide bombing provides and also requires no escape routes or methodologies (Joanisval Goncalves, 2014), with no required complicated rescue operations, and the goal of causing mass casualties intended or extensive damage is guaranteed with the choice of time, location, and attack conditions or circumstances fully in the discretion of the bomber. This also according to (Joanisval Goncalves, 2014), will provide extensive media coverage, and leaves no room for any trace, since the bomber's death is all but certain.
Additionally religious extremism has also provided another motivating facet through martyr, an idealogical conviction that encourages the terrorist to undert take the act, followed in some cases by the economic fulfillment of knowing that the assilant's family will be taken care of, (Joanisval Goncalves 2014).
Notable researchers like Abrahms (2008), according to (Todd Sandler, 2013), do question the rationality of terrorist's actions, since their goal is not most times achieved.
According to Abrahms (2008: 83) "in a sample of twenty-eight well-known terrorist campaigns, the terrorist organizations accomplished their stated policy goals zero percent of the time by attacking civilians" compared to 132 campaigns by groups that have renounced terrorism for political solutions and other civil methodologies, and ended up achieving their goals Jones & Libicki (2008).
Regardless the methodology or whether the goal of the terrorists is met or not, they impacted the targets emotionally, psychologically, mentally, and of course physically. It is therefore important that any policy on terrorism must try to:
Understand and address the root causes of terrorism to prepare society and be able to help prepare steps that will reduce grievances and, therefore, limit terrorism.
Be able to understand the relationship between policy makers or administrators including microscopic view of the policies created by the policy makers, and how these policies trigger terrorism. This will help educate policymakers on the inherent risks that domestic political regimes will come to bear, and how as it spans terrorism across countries where these policymakers have vital interests.
To effectively study terrorist groups and trends to help in forecasting terrorist attacks and counter policies.
The ability to analyze the economic consequences of terrorism, including the social costs of terrorist campaigns.
How governments ascertain the effectiveness of their defensive methodologies and proactive countermeasures, and the potential gains from these measures and policies limiting terrorist attacks, and to discourage ineffective measures.
6.0 The evolution of terrorism
Over the years since 1968 when data record on terrorism commenced, terrorism has had very dynamic evolution over the years with different groups using more complex tactics such as skyjackings which uses longer planning and impact cycles than simpler modes, (Sandler & Enders, 2004), deployed in various theaters using different agents, and with different messaging methodology to attract different audience, while the fundamental goal of inflicting pain, mass casualty, and death, remains the same.
This dynamism as noted earlier has resulted from the alternative counter terrorism modes of government and other law enforcement authorities and agents.
Using composite bombings with letter bombs, explosive bombings, and car bombings have represented the multiple cycles available as alternative lengths, causing a dilemma for law enforcement to determine the different cycles, to enable them the ability to forecast the next wave of regular attack cycles.
According to the ITERATE data presented on the chart, in figure 1, transnational terrorist attacks spiked from 1968 to the mid-1980s through State sponsored terrorism with about 500 incidents per year (Hoffman, 2006), which subsided in the late 80's to mid-90's.
Figure 2, presents the proportion number of casualties to both the transnational and domestic terrorist events, based on ITERATE and GTD, respectively. As shown in the figure, there is a rise in transnational terrorism incidents with a proportional increase in the number of casualties in late 1991, due in part to the growing dominance of religious fundamentalist terrorists, craving for greater carnage (Enders & Sandler, 2000; Rapoport, 2004)
Before 1990, 26% of transnational terrorist attacks ended in casualties; after 1990, there is a 41% rise in attacks resulting in casualties. According to Enders, Sandler & Gaibulloev's (2011) division of GTD data,
Figure 2 also depicts a rise in the proportion of domestic terrorist events with casualties in the late 1980's to mid-2000 with a higher trend, than that of transnational terrorist attacks with casualties.
7.0 Figure 1.
Number of transnational terrorist incidents (ITERATE), 1968–2011
8.0 Figure 2.
Proportion of transnational and domestic terrorist events with casualties
Causes and roots of terrorism
Because of the myriad causes of terrorism, it is not surprising that there has not been any consensus established according to (Todd Sandler, 2013), on the root causes of domestic and transnational terrorism, despite different empirical literature on Economic discrimination, religious persecution, nationalist/separatist motives, religious fundamentalism, political ideologies, and other grounds that may erupt in terrorism by marginalized groups (Wilkinson, 1986). In the aftermath of 9/11, there were many interpretations including the popular belief that poverty (which president Obama has also mentioned several times), among other reasons, as a factor in transnational terrorism; however, Krueger & Maleckova (2003) discovered little to no relationship between poverty from the lack of market opportunities and terrorism (also see Piazza, 2006).
From a study sample conducted by Krueger & Maleckova (2003) on a cross-section sample of countries, the study found no relationship between terrorism and low income, but rather a stunning relationship with more terrorism associated with controlled civil and political liberties. This was also confirmed by an opinion poll of Palestinians in the Gaza Strip that showed also no relationship between low income and educational level to terrorism, (Todd Sandler, 2013).
Enders & Hoover (2012) noted a nonlinear relationship between income and terrorism and argued instead that middle income earning ability creates a conducive platform for terrorism; a point also supported by, de la Calle & Sánchez-Cuenca, 2012). Citizens in poor countries they contend, are more focused on day-to-day survival, while those in advanced and rich countries cares less about other peoples businesses and therefore has less grievances to fuel terrorism (Todd Sandler, 2013).
Given the myriad contradictory findings on the root causes of terrorism, there was a need for a study to help sort out the drivers of these differences. According to Gassebner & Luechinger (2011), the roots of terrorism can be described using the ITERATE, GTD, and RAND event datasets, in addition to panel runs performed to determine the attributes that attracts a terrorist, and what repels them from a potential victim and venue.
Gassebner & Luechinger (2011), determined that, some of the key determinants or attractions of a number of terrorist attacks are not unique, but dependent on the venue identified, and by dataset. The study found however that, there are more commonalities that exists amongst the victims and venue or target countries, than there are for the planning or perpetrator's country
For the victim or targeted citizen, GDP per capita, population, wars, and religious and ethnic insensitivity are positive determinants which attracts terrorist attacks, while economic freedoms and physical integrity rights (i.e. absence of human rights abuse) are negative determinants or repellant of these attacks Gassebner & Luechinger (2011).
For the venue or targeted country, Gassebner & Luechinger (2011), both authors argue that, economic freedom, physical integrity rights, and law and order, are negative influences that discourages terrorism, while the targeted country's population, spending on military, engagement in wars, foreign policies and portfolio investment, and political proximity to the United States (in terms of the UN General Assembly voting) are positive influences on terrorism including the United States itself.
Gassebner & Luechinger (2011), further noted that, during the panel run based on the perpetrators' are discouraged terrorism by result from actions that includes economic freedom, physical integrity rights, while civil wars and centrist governments will just feed into terrorist's propaganda and subsequent attacks.
Consequently, the causes of domestic terrorism will greatly differ from those of transnational terrorism and will be country specific naturally. In contrast, it is viewed that, transnational terrorism is most times dominated by common grievances, such as left-wing ideologies during the 1970s and 1980s or religious fundamentalism in the beginning of the 1990s, Gassebner & Luechinger (2011), including an identity dominance based on religious extremism in the 21st. Century.
9.0 How preventable is a similar catastrophic event in the United States?
As we currently struggle with the ideology of terrorist groups being propagated all around the world and enticing different individuals to subscribe to them, the home grown terrorist possible threat is always of great concern. Despite the laws allowing the US government to monitor individual activities, these sleeper cells are the biggest threats that could be residing in the local communities. There is a growing desire by terrorists to set their hands on bio-nuclear weapons. While law enforcement officers are proactively finding the technology to monitor these groups and their activities, the terrorists have effect their methodologies of spreading their ideology, entice recruitment, and help their lone wolves subscribers in self-training. Thus causing greater vigilance by law enforcement in public places and especially mass transits.
It is safe to say that, even though this threat exists, the possibility of importing this weapon into the United States, remains the biggest challenge for any individual or groups.
10.0 Bioterrorism threat assessment
According to the Rand Corporation, RAND Corporation monograph series, (2014), bioterrorism remains, and will continue to be a major threat in the foreseeable future with major challenges to address. These challenges ranges from the difficulty to quickly identify an outbreak, contain it, and coming up with a quick methodology to treat the outbreak victims. These concerns remains pivotal and felt across all of disaster management process which includes the planning, the response, the recovery, and prevention.
This makes the risk to first responders so grave, because of the inability to identify the threat quickly, prepare decontamination check points or provide decontamination kits and equipment for them to carry. Generally, the uniqueness of these weapons, makes it difficult to identify and would result to many people getting infected without obvious symptoms.
11.0 Emergency Responders and Preparedness
Even though first responders are qualified professionals, trained and ready for dangerous situations as the emergency might dictate, the nature of their job may make them look tough and fearless. However, their quick judgement is required in making swift life and death decisions involving either themselves, their coworkers, or the person/s they were intended to save in the first place.
This is fundamentally problematic in situations where the emergency is of great magnitude, causing sometimes a freeze of mental thought process, especially during an emergency of a large proportion, resulting in the injury of many people, or casualties of untold numbers, or that has affected vast areas. This is especially true when varied volunteer agencies with varied leadership hierarchies are involved in prolonged response operations.
The greatest problem of all the volunteers or emergency responders is the fear of the unknown. This is where the determination to engage in, and with what, becomes the challenge. How do they protect themselves or the victim, without them becoming victimized as well?
20.0 Challenges to address
12.1 Recommendations to consider
According to the RAND study, RAND Corporation monograph series, (2014), identifying, assessing, and processing hazardous information would be easy with the right equipment, but not the easiest to implement because of the inability for ground managers to have experts who would collectively evaluate the hazards presented on a disaster site and the threat it poses to responders. However, it is most times so difficult to have a comprehensive assessment of such information especially in a large scale disaster situation, when many responders from different commands come to the emergency site.
Nonetheless, with proper training, and hypothesis continuous training scenarios and simulation dry runs, certain basic procedures and prepared guidelines would be followed, to mitigate the confusion that normally ensues in a disaster situation. These procedures would include the proper disseminated of information throughout multiple agencies, with a checklists and guidelines to follow. Though it is sometimes not followed sequentially, it however, helps to provide a process of ensuring that major objectives are not skipped.
The implementation of integrated, incident wide safety management is one of, if not the most difficult recommendation to follow, and normally because of the joint experiences and exercises between local and out of jurisdiction agencies that each agency has established within their internal structure. This is particularly true in leadership that has no flexibility and collaborative experiences with other agencies.
RAND Corporation report: "Protecting Emergency Responders: Safety Management in Disaster and Terrorism Response, (RAND Corporation monograph series, 2014).
13.0 Effectiveness of counterterrorism policies
13.1 Why biochemical is a major discussion in terrorism
Counter terrorism would be baseless if efforts are not made to secure most of the stock piles of the Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) which remains the focal interests of terrorist groups.
It is a stunning reality to know that Bio War Fare is not a new phenomenon, but rather has underwent different modifications and methodologies of deployment. As the years passes by, the interests changed from leadership to leadership.
For history sake, the national interest in this type of warfare gained the spotlight from the 14th and 15th century according to the (medieval medical lore), with the use of rotten bodies stench as biological weapons resulting to the truce negotiation by the defenders of 'Hainault, northern France' in 1340, followed by the 1346 plaque epidemic of the Black Death in Europe, also transmitted by dead bodies during the Tartars' siege of Caffa, in the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea
(History of Bio warfare, PBS.org).
The following is a chronological breakdown of all bioweapon global attacks as documented by the United States Department of Homeland Security.
"In 2001, anthrax attacks through the U.S. mail infected 11 people with inhalational anthrax, of which five died. An additional 11 people were infected with cutaneous (skin) anthrax, of which there were no fatalities.
In the 1990s, the cult Aum Shinrikyo failed in its attempts to release anthrax and botulinum toxin in Tokyo but did succeed in a chemical attack with Sarin nerve agent.
In 1984, the cult followers of Baghwan Shree Rajneesh sickened 751 people in Oregon by placing salmonella bacteria in salad bars in 10 restaurants to keep people from voting in an election.
In World War II, Unit 731 in Japanese-occupied Manchuria dropped plague-infected fleas in China, allegedly resulting in more than 50,000 deaths.
In World War I, German agents successfully infected Allied livestock with anthrax and glanders.
In the 1340s, Europeans threw plague-infected cadavers over city walls to infect those within" (Homeland Security, Historical Perspective on Biological Attack, 2012).
These events followed by the revelation of Bill Patrick during the NOVA & Board interview of 2001, is not startling that it just a matter of when, and not if the United States will ever face a bio-weapon attack. As evident in that very year, the Anthrax attack killed five people, infecting eleven, following the Salmonella bacteria in the salad bars that sickened 751 people in Oregon in 1984, used by the cult followers of Baghwan Shree Rajneesh to stop people from voting in an election (History of Bio warfare, PBS.org).
The interest, effectiveness, and use of these weapons remains the same interest of terrorists groups today who would not hesitate to use them to cause harm.
14.0 Why stockpiles of biochemical warfare agents maintained.
Absolutely, for deterrent reasons. The enemy will cautiously engage you when they cannot determine or predict your response either in kind or with excessive repellant methodologies or measures. As we read from the interview, the Soviet Union was fully developing their Bio-Weaponry even after signing the 1972 offensive weapon treaty, (Board & NOVA, PBS.org).
The Soviet Union and other countries continued to maintain and even develop their stockpiles under the same treaty because, the 1975 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) allowed countries to develop their weapons for defense research (Levy & Sidel, 2012, p204).
15.0 What steps needed in light of the historical context of bioterrorism?
The Anthrax attack was not a wakeup call for the US government, but a reality check on its preparedness for the ultimate eventuality of such an attack. The salmonella was the wakeup call for the US particularly, besides the other occurrences in the other countries which should have been used as the warning to our vulnerabilities.
Though we recognize the inability to attain 100 percent security preparedness, however, there can be lawyered security without ambiguity that can be executed in the event if any attack. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the National Institute of Health (NIH), the two leading health facilities should be in constant communication with the Department of Health and Human Services with coordinated services with all State and local agencies to ensure that proper protocols are not only in place, but strictly followed. This would ensure that, in the event of an outbreak, all these agencies are fully operational and in accordance with protocols, while providing detailed information to law enforcement agencies for the legal investigation.
Due to the unpredictable nature of these bio weapons and their agents, sensing agents or monitors should be installed in all sensitive installations and public infrastructures such as schools, bridges, in addition to crowded areas such as shopping malls. This is particularly true since all other countries and groups with different ideologies are geared to causing mass casualty in the event of a war with adversaries, or terrorist attack.
16.0 State of biochemical warfare and terrorism
The launch of the Anthrax in 2001 was clear evidence that the interest in bio weapon is not, and will never abate as an arsenal of terror or for military use. Despite all the treaties and conventions signed by the nations stocking these weapons, there is still great appetite to maintain some or a part of it. The Chemical Weapon Convention (CWC) bans the development, production, stockpiling, transfer, and use of these of these weapons (Levy & Sidel, 2012, p,195), while the 1972 Biological Weapon Convention just as the CWC, makes exceptions to the aforementioned regulations if their production is for legitimate purposes such as pharmaceuticals, protection (against chemical or bio-weapons), and law enforcement (riot control). As a result, every country will continue the production under one or multiple or all of the conditions specified above (Levy & Sidel, 2012, p, 197).
This and other bilateral and multilateral agreements have lit up the arms race to a new level. For example, United States current deal with India (a nonmember of the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty, NPT) allows India the ability to build up its nuclear weapon program. This has precipitated similar agreements with other countries such as, that of Pakistan and China, India and Japan, United Kingdom and France, United States and Vietnam, and a host more including Russia and Venezuela (Levy & Sidel, 2012, p,174).
Excluded in these deals are the possibilities of the arms trade with not only rogue nations, but also individuals belonging to different terror groups willing to harm western targets and particularly the US and its interests around the globe will take the greatest advantage of it. Another possibility is the theft of these weapons by terrorists or the collapse of a government and the rise of fundamentalists with no control on these weapons. All these scenario increase the possibility of a US attack. The possible attack of another anthrax is still a concern, especially from home grown groups as was the case by a lone wolf in 200, but scarier is the ability to transport these weapons by overseas fundamentalist groups across our porous borders. As noted by Bill Patrick "This bag with all my noninfectious simulants and crude disseminators has been through all the major airports of this country. I've also been through the State Department in Washington, D.C. I've been through the Center for Disease Control. I thought surely those people would stop me". These security lapses are encouraging signs and steps to be exploited by followers of ISIS and home grown sympathizers who are been asked by ISIS to act at home.
There has been several studies done on counterterrorism since the Landes (1978) study, with specific policies starting from technological barriers, to human intelligence, on how to inhibit or at least mitigate the acts of terror from most or some extremist individuals or groups. Though some of them have proved successful especially on intelligence sharing, some have compromised the intention through transference. An example would be the installation of metal detectors at airports and other public buildings, making it known to terrorists that detection is possible, hence, the groups methodology and behavior changes as well. In addition, the decrease in skyjacking due to metal detectors, and physical barriers around public buildings have increased the number of kidnappings and (Enders & Sandler, 1993), suicide bombings, and have impacted the number of terrorist's incidents also in areas around the Embassies. However, these interventions increased the incidences of terrorist's assassination of officials outside these US compounds and around the world (Enders & Sandler, 1993). Terrorists have become adaptable to counter any action to inhibit their move towards their goals. For instance, the measures to secure the home land through the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security has resulted in a spike in attacks against Americans on foreign soil (Enders & Sandler, 2006), specifically, 40% of transnational attacks (Enders & Sandler, 2012), before and after September 11, directed on US interests abroad.
It is however difficult to judge the effectiveness of these interventions in costs, and the actions benefit. This could also be attributed to the lack of United Nations resolutions, conventions, and treaties which had so much promise (Wilkinson, 1986), but lack enforcement mechanism.
It's also true (Enders & Sandler, 2012; Sandler, 2005), that domestic terrorism is more easily handled than transnational attacks and those benefits are quickly achievable and don't spread to foreign interests. There is no silver bullet proof from any one measure or the other, but actions taken by different federal private agencies.
17.0 Economic consequences of terrorism
The direct and indirect economic impact of terrorism cannot be priced, due to unreported human toll, and other financial costs involving some of the immediate losses associated with terrorist attack, such as the value of damaged structures, injuries sustained, lost wages, destroyed goods, cleanup, and reduced commerce from direct attack result. Indirectly, the cost includes higher insurance premiums, enhanced security costs, counterterrorism expenses, and lost future commerce. For example, the September11, 2001 attacks is "estimated to be $80 to $90 billion when the gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States in 2001 was about $10 trillion" (Kunreuther, Michel-Kerjan & Porter, 2003).
18.0 Figure 3.
Cumulative number of transnational terrorist incidents by target type, 1968–2010
The macroeconomic impact of reduced or lost growth GDP like consumption, investment, due to perceived higher risk on the part of the investors (Blomberg, Hess & Orphanides, 2004), leading to a possible transfer of investment opportunities to other countries with competitive rates of returns, but lower risks of terrorism, and government expenditures would also be affected and would trickle down the economy.
analysis, Enders, Sandler & Parise (1992) showed that terrorist attacks directed at the Greek tourist industry cost Greece 23.4% of its annual tourism revenue for 1988. Another wave of terrorist attacks in Austria during 1985–87 cost Austria 40.7% of its annual tourist revenues for 1988 (also, see Drakos & Kutan, 2003).
There are Drakos & Kutan, 2003), some general economic principles that serve as guidelines in the event of consequences of economic terrorism. Some of basic principles are explained below.
The diversified countries have generally provided a quick turnaround mechanisms by redirecting economic activities from terrorism-prone sectors or area, to safer sectors within the country (Sandler & Enders, 2004). We also see advanced economies like the United States proving the ability to offset the effects of terrorism using fiscal monetary cushions put in place as demonstrated in the aftermath of 9/11 (Enders & Sandler, 2012: 296–298).
In contrast, small economies such as Israel, Colombia, and the Basque Country in Spain Abadie & Gardeazabal, 2003), plagued with terrorism without the safety net as provided by developed and larger economies like the United States as mentioned above, will have a different experience from such attacks to include a loss in GDP
Small and developing countries will be detrimentally affected by terrorists attacks (Enders & Sandler, 2012; Gaibulloev & Sandler, 2011), especially failed states that are playing host to terrorist groups, because of the possibility of scaring foreign direct investment (FDI), which are a pivotal source of economic growth and savings.
19.0 How the war on terror becomes the war within, and difficult to win.
Winning the war on terror remains a real phenomenon without a comprehensive strategy even with the leadership of the most powerful nation in the face of the earth, with all its military and economic empire.
For over fifteen years, after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in New York, the Federal, States, and Local governments first responders have made tremendous efforts in stream lining the duties and responsibilities of the different agencies, and to have the most effective intelligence agencies work in tandem to track, dismantle, and defeat the terror network that is especially posing the greatest threat against the United States, its allies, and interests abroad.
In 2009, President Obama came to office with a fresh start or reset on foreign policy that he believes will yield a peaceful and livable world, and contrary to and aberrant from the policies followed by his predecessor President George W. Bush who was adamantly pursuing the fight against extremist, especially the Middle East under the pretext of the global war on terror, as a war against evil, (Joseph Loconte, (2014). .
According to Joseph Loconte, (2014), President Obama and his allies had a different view of why the insurgency of extremist exist against the civilized world. He believed that poverty, varied political oppression, and nonchalant foreign policies of the United States are major factors feeding the underlying extremist grievances, (Joseph Loconte, (2014). During his early tours overseas, President Obama gave the impression to the Arabs and the world that the presence of United States military in the Middle East was the fundamental problem behind the terrorist ideology and a galvanizing element. In 2009, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for promising chane, especially of getting the United States military from Iraq and Afghanistan, followed with a new diplomacy methodology. In 20103, the President declared the end of the global war on terror with the killing of Osama Bin Landen as the success in decimating the Al-Qaida network and supporting his argument that the military is not the solution to the problem, (Joseph Loconte, (2014).
How did we get back to an undeclared war by the United States, under the same leadership, in the same Middle East, with a new will to build an international coalition to confront the very threat declared decimated? President Obama is now back peddling to the original war against terror and now resolved to believing that "no grievance justifies these actions" and that "there can be no reasoning—no negotiation—with this brand of evil.", and "The only language understood by killers like this is the language of force", noted during his speech delivered at the United Nations 2014 General Assembly in New York (Joseph Loconte, (2014). As the call to international coalition becomes more vocal by the President and his administration, less interest is being shown by other nations especially Arabs to join and send any ground troops in response to the Presidents reluctance to do the same with American armed forces. As the air campaign is going months now with little success against the group called the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), the Obama administration is rethinking its strategies, especially amid the growing influence of this group and the gains it has made on the ground, and the brutal methodologies used to inflict pain on its victims, in addition to the over whelming success it has in recruiting not only Arab or Middle Eastern sympathizers, but Westerners too, who have now become a part of the challenging force.
The realignment of the United States intelligence agencies with billions of dollars in intelligence budget, the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the multiple wars fought in Afghanistan and Iraq and the enactment of the patriot act, the killing of Osama Bin Laden, the sharing of information with intelligence counterparts abroad, airport security and the expansion of the no-fly-list have all contributed to making America safer by many accounts, but also brought many challenges to bear, (Ashley Hayes, CNN, 2011).
Some of the challenges then and today remains the acts of the lone wolves, (Tom Fuentes, a CNN contributor and former FBI assistant director, 2011). In support, Thomas Kean, former New Jersey governor and chair of the 9/11 commission,(2011), reiterated the fact that homegrown terrorism continues to be the biggest threats America faces, and one that requires concrete interventions to deal with it. Countering this threat requires a comprehensive coordinated plan and methodology among first responders, and the ability to work as a team. According to Kean, there was no existing communication spectrum for first responders, which caused dramatic problems for police and fire department officials to communicate during the collapse of the twin towers in New York City, and still remains a problem today, over a decade after the attacks of September, 11, 2011, (Thomas Kean, 2011).
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) created in the aftermath of the attacks, as the primary federal entity for ensuring that first responders, especially the police, and the fire, including emergency medical, and public health personnel, would now have the capabilities and resources needed to provide a coordinated effort between all the agencies leading to comprehensive response to any large-scale crisis, while ensuring that State and local agencies will have the resources to keep a sustained corporation between the local first responders, (GAO 2005).
However, the challenge still remains the coordination of all these efforts from federal to local municipalities, even after all these years. We cannot dismiss the major strides, the developments, and improvements made towards the first responders. In addition to the medical attention being paid to first responders especially those in New York with increased cancer rates nearly 65000 enrolled, (Jen Christensen, CNN, 2014), tremendous resources were deployed in the Eastern region by all agencies especially FEMA, under the authority of Homeland Security, during the Hurricane Sandy devastation along the New Jersey and New York corridor.
While developing these agencies, the urge to inflict mass casualty and mayhem to the United States and the West by terrorists groups through any means, remains very concerning to the administration and other western leaders as well.
The attacks of September 11, 2001 freshly remaindered the American public of the days of Pearl Harbor in 1941, when all the branches of government seem to suspend every civil liberty and even parts of the constitution, in support of methodologies and rushed enactment of laws that maligned special groups against others, especially the Japanese suspected of orchestrating the danger in the homeland for security. Following that attack on Pearl Harbor, even though these actions according Peter Siggins, (2002), were in direct contrast with America's democratic ideals of equality, the national interest of preserving the safety and security of the nation superseded the interest of equality.
Supporting this fact is "the Supreme Court's holding in Korematsu, that the Government in time of war had justified racial discrimination practices in the name of national security" in aberration of many lower courts recognition that the injustice that brought the Japanese confinement during that period was counterproductive, (Peter Siggins, 2002). The complete re-enactment of these occurrences could be the repeat of history in today's post September 11 efforts to combat terrorist acts on American soil, and the use of race as an effective effort to deter future attacks.
Adding to that profound Japanese internment, was the 1968 Supreme Court decision of Terry v. Ohio, a landmark case that provoked the stop and frisk methodology used by many police departments today across the nation. In that ruling, Chief Justice Warren and seven other justices held that, a law enforcement officer is in no violation of the Fourth Amendment in detaining and searching a person for a weapon without a search warrant, especially when acting upon a reasonable objective belief, and the factors present every evidence that the person is armed and dangerous, (Peter Siggins, 2002). The court also maintains that the officers subjective impetus plays no role in the Fourth Amendment analysis in justifying the stop and search, (Peter Siggins, 2002).
In the weeks following September 11, this historical and legal backdrop became the practice of our law enforcement and internal domestic security agencies in response to this horrific attacks, as federal, state and local law enforcement officials worked feverishly to investigate the perpetrators of these reprehensible crime on American Soil, while also trying to assess the state of vulnerability of the homeland, to further attacks.
As it became apparent that the perpetrators are foreigners of Middle Eastern descent, the focus shifted heavily on nationals from middle eastern countries, in blatant disregard of any other factors warranting suspicion, coupled with personal interviews from federal officials and school administrators to college goers from these countries to determine their major studies, number of class misses, addresses, and religion, (Peter Siggins, 2002). Some of these actions became incentives to terrorist support, and not poverty and unemployment as claimed by the leadership.
The success of ISIS cannot therefore be attributed or supported by the claims of President Obama as the result of racial and ethnic inequality that aggravates social communal problems like "crime and violence, war, unemployment, poverty, health problems, family problems, urban decay and drug use" (kristag, 2011). In a poll conduct in March of 2015, the fears of terrorism ranked atop the list of concerns by Americans (51%) climbing 12 percentage points from 2014 to 2015,, while the national economy continuous to grow.
20.0 Gallop Poll conducted on March 5-5, 2015, (Justin McCarthy Gallup 2015).
As noted by the President, the only counter to the ISIS threat is through force that started with the air campaign that has now lasted close to one year. The continued bombing camping has had very little to no effect in the success in countering the most lethal terrorist group ever existed. This is in part due to many factors including generational gap between the predominantly young recruits and fighters of ISIS, compared to the older or adult aged Al-Qaida fighters of Osama Bin-Laden.
ISIS has turned the use of technology owned and developed by the west, to the group's advantage because of the millennium aged fighters who are more proficient and technically savvy in the use of these gadgets, which enables them to communicate to their peers.
From the roughly more than 12,000 foreign fighters amidst ISIS new generation of incubated terrorist stationed in Syria, as described by the Soufan Group, most of them come from at least 81 countries, and about 2500 of them are from the United States, Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, and Great Britain (Jason M, 2014).
It is becoming apparent that, the war on terror will continue, the same ideology brought home by a different army, taking up the challenge against the west, while the west is becoming defensive, instead of being on the offensive. ISIS is strategically grouping and training both physically and virtually, making it impossible to match up.
Recruiting not only young men but women such as "Zara and Salma Halane, 16-year-old twins from Manchester; Aqsa Mahmoud, a 20-year-old from Glasgow; and Khadija Dare, a 22-year-old from London who reportedly aspires to be the first ISIS female to behead an "infidel," or the 19-year-old Sharon Conley of Colorado, USA all wanting to be jihadists, Qanta Ahmed, (2014) are also responding to ISIS' leader, Baghdadi, in his quest to build the new Islamic State, and empower these women to become traditional married women for childbearing, while encouraging skilled workers like doctors, nurses, engineers, and those who want to be and have frontline combat experience to join, (Qanta Ahmed, 2014).
If the success of terrorist is to cause mayhem and disrupt life in general including the opportunity to inflict casualty, ISIS is meeting the challenge, without a physical presence in some cases around the globe.
To validate their presence, ISIS claimed responsibility through their official radio channel, and to confirm to their followers and sympathizers for the attack in Garland Texas outside a Prophet Mohammed cartoon contest, and further warned of more attacks to come, (Holly Yan, 2015).
According to Holly Yan, (2015), ISIS stated the following, "We say to the defenders of the cross, the U.S. that future attacks are going to be harsher and worse. The Islamic State soldiers will inflict harm on you with the grace of God. The future is just around the corner."
Subsequently, the U.S. military threat level was raised to "Bravo," the third force protection condition in all US bases due to ISIS increase in activity, (Inquisitr, 2015).
The question therefore remains if we are safer today from the threat of terrorism via different methods in the face of technology which terrorist groups have mastered so skillfully using.
Are we sleeping with lone wolves without any thread of a sign or clue for us? Will poverty, become the weapon or incentive to for jihadists, and finally, is racial religious or ethnic profiling working as intended or counterproductive? These questions will continue to dominate the intelligence discussion.
After over a decade investment and deployment of resources to sustain a double war to defeat the threat terror, while the threat is becoming even stronger than ever, I think it is time to question the methodologies applied today. Are we better off supporting dictators such as Saddam Hussein, and Mummar Gaddafi who would otherwise contain this threat in their countries to a minimum, or support leaders under the cover of democracy, but in failed States? Should we impose our democratic values to other nations, or support their practice of democracy? Grave choices to make with consequences.
21.0 Agencies coordination post 9/11
I have to agree in content and with exception that this document was written during the infancy stage of the Department of Homeland Security and at a moment of high grief and when more questions were being asked than answers provided. Couple important events of national attention had occurred after this publication like Hurricane Katrina, the bombing in Boston, Hurricane Sandy among the major ones to compare notes after the September 11 attacks. In reviewing the response of the different agencies to post 911 events such as natural emergencies which are not from terrorist's attacks, but still with magnitudes of concerns and a test to agency collaboration and joint responses.
Further, I may also add that the intelligence agencies have also improved immensely in their sharing and coordination of efforts with their counter parts both locally, nationally and international to such a degree that no major attack have occurred in the United States, since post 911.
It is however, worth noting that, more emphasis has to be made in the areas of hierarchical relationship between these agencies and work ethics, to facilitate a smooth structural set up in times of emergency.
22.0 Factors stopping agency collaboration
The three reasons (political, bureaucratic, and geopolitical) mentioned continues and will continue to be some of the factors impeding coordination between agencies. It is inherently important to note that these are not unique problems to any one agency, but across the board and even internationally. Every agency wants to prove its nossistic position and validate it's importance to the other and will therefore internationally and sometimes unintentionally withhold pertinent information, to prove it's supremacy to others.
Of course every agency is answerable to different heads and so is their budget requirements and priorities. It is extremely difficult to have a consolidated budget that will satisfy all agencies because of the different methodologies applied to meet their missions. Sometimes, funding is also a bigger issue factoring in these hurdles. Additionally, mission changes, resources deficits including human will also gravely affect the potential output of these agencies.
Communication gap has to be narrowed to facilitate information sharing, while establishing communication in real time emergencies. Hurricane Sandy provided an opportunity to test real progress among agency collaboration.
23.0 Benefits to the centralization emergencies and functions
Centralizing the agencies and their function will not only mitigate the communication problems inherent in bring multiple agencies of different operating protocols, but would also reduce cost and cut down on the budgetary competition presented by these agencies annually or whenever; especially when changes occur. It would also help in the command structure, and hence the delegation of responsibilities as well. There will be the down side of management and waste if through over sight is not setup and correctly implemented. It would however improve training, and coordination among agencies, will reducing the rivalry that sometimes exists
24.0 Conclusion
Technology developed in the west has allowed modern-day terrorism groups such as ISIS to assume insidious forms, and take extreme advantage to the weak, and against powerful governments to message that, terrorism is here to stay. The application of analytical techniques will therefore provide is a way for targeted or vulnerable countries to level the playing field through the identification of potential roadblocks to cooperation, resources and more effective policies to engage, inform, and empower government and administrators in counterterrorism intelligence.
Empirical methodologies will allow government authorities the ability to evaluate policy effectiveness including foreign aid, and gauge economic impacts of terrorism on society. There has to also be an improved quantification with meticulous analysis of the economic impact on developing economies in needed of foreign aid and the effect of the aid in security policies.
Focus has to also be concentrated on the microeconomic impact for the private sectors other than just airlines and tourism, to add to our knowledge and value of the costs of terrorism. A thorough understanding of this impact will help policy makers have a balanced judgement on the cost of defense against terrorism, and the influence of policies and other events on terrorism time series. There will be no doubt that, a better coordinated study of both domestic and transnational on will help international agencies in policy making as well, since different terrorist groups play on different rules and engagement, with the same ideology.
In a study conducted by Rudman, Clarke, & Metzl, (2003), the report asserted that the United States will remain underprepared even if the government spends the annual gross domestic product (GDP) (Rudman, Clarke, & Metzl, 2003), That used to be the case pre 911 and immediately post 911, when the country and the government was making its analysis, and recommendations not only to counter terrorists but to be on the offence. The United States looked upon as the world leader in global affairs, has doubled its budget on intelligence and information sharing not only among us agencies, but in collaborating with other nations, to help and also learn from them in the fight against the common enemy. Nothing is effective in this fight, as the enemy keeps mutating, to adapt to changing circumstances.
25.0 References:
Abadie Alberto, & Gardeazabal Javier, (2003)
The economic costs of conflict: A case study of the Basque Country. American Economic Review 93(1): 113–132.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Ashley Jacobs, Fox5, 2014
Retrieved 05/03/2015 from:http://fox5sandiego.com/2014/08/29/homeland-security-warns-isis-attack-on-united-states-border-is-possibility/
Blomberg S Brock, Hess Gregory D, & Orphanides Athanasios (2004)
The macroeconomic consequences of terrorism. Journal of Monetary Economics 51(5): 1007– Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
1032.
CNN iReport, 2001)
Costs of War n.d.
Retrieved 3/292015 from: http://costsofwar.org/article/us-and-allied-killed-and-wounded
Enders Walter, & Hoover Gary A (2012)
The nonlinear relationship between terrorism and poverty. American Economic Review 102(3): 267–272.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Gaibulloev Khusrav, & Sandler Todd(2011)
The adverse effect of transnational and domestic terrorism on growth in Africa. Journal of Peace Research 48(3): 355–371.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Gassebner Martin, & Luechinger Simon (2011)
Lock, stock, and barrel: A comprehensive assessment of the determinants of terror. Public Choice 149 (3–4): 235–261.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Hoffman Bruce (2006)
Inside Terrorism , revised edn. New York: Columbia University Press.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Holly Yan, CNN, 2015
Retrieved 05/05/2015 from: http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/05/us/garland-texas-prophet-mohammed-contest-shooting/index.html
Homeland Security, Historical Perspective on Biological Attack, 2012.
http://www.dhs.gov/biological-attack-danger
Inquisitr, 2015
Retrieved 05/03/2015 from:http://www.inquisitr.com/2076505/isis-threat-level-raised-military-increases-alert-level/
Jason M., Pbs.Org 2011
Retrieved 05/05/2015 from:http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/iraq-war-on-terror/losing-iraq/why-are-so-many-westerners-joining-isis/
Jen Christensen, CNN, 2014
Retrieved 05/03/2015 from:http://www.cnn.com/2014/07/30/health/911-cancer-increase/index.html
Joanisval Goncalves, 2014.
http://joanisval.com/2014/02/13/are-suicide-bombers-rational-actors/
Justin McCarthy Gallup 2015
Retrieved 05/05/2015 from:http://www.gallup.com/poll/182018/worries-terrorism-race-relations-sharply.aspx
Kristag Blogpost, 2011
Retrieved 05/04/2015 from: http://raceethnicityterrorismsociology.blogspot.com/
Krueger Alan, & Maleckova Jitka (2003)
Education, poverty, and terrorism: Is there a causal connection? Journal of Economic Perspectives 17(4): 119–144.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Kunreuther Howard, Michel-Kerjan Erwann, & Porter Beverly (2003)
Assessing managing and financing extreme events: Dealing with terrorism. Working Paper 10179. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Linghda J. Bilmes 2013
Retrieved3/292015from:https://research.hks.harvard.edu/publications/workingpapers/citation.aspx?PubId=8956&type=WPN
New York Times reporter Bill Broad & NOVA producer Kirk Wolfinger
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/biow_patrick.html
NOVA (n.d.). History of biowarfare.
Retrieved on March 11, 2015, from: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/hist_nf.html
Peter Siggins, Santa Clara University, 2012
Retrieved 05/04/2015 from:http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/ethicalperspectives/profiling.html
Piazza James A (2006)
Qanta Ahmed, FoxNews.com, 2014
Retrieved 05/03/2015 from:http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2014/09/18/unveiling-invisible-women-joining-isis.html
Rooted in poverty? Terrorism, poor economic development, and social cleavages. Terrorism and Political Violence 18(1): 159–177.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
PIERRE THOMAS, ABC World News, 2015
Retrieved 05/03/2015 from: http://abcnews.go.com/author/Pierre_Thomas
Rapoport David C, (2004).
Modern terror: The four waves. In: Cronin Audrey K, Ludes James M (eds) Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 46–73.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Rosendorff B Peter, & Sandler Todd, (2004)
Too much of a good thing? The proactive response dilemma. Journal of Conflict Resolution 48(5): 657–671.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-57
Rudman, W. B., Clarke, R. A., & Metzl, J. F. (2003). Emergency Responders: Drastically Underfunded, Dangerously Unprepared. New York: The council on Foreign Relations, INC.
Terrorism-and-public-health. A Balanced Approach to Strengthening Systems and Protecting People. Barry S. Levy & Victor W. Sidel. 2nd Edition, 2012.
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/terrorism-and-public-health-9780199765546?cc=us&lang=en&
Todd Sandler, & Walter Enders, 2007.
University of Texas at Dallas,
[email protected]
University of Alabama - Tuscaloosa,
[email protected]
Retrieved05/10/2015from:http://research.create.usc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1115&context=nonpublished_reports
Wilkinson Paul, (1986).
Terrorism and the Liberal State, revised edn. London: Frank Cass.
Retrieved 5/16/2015 from: http://jpr.sagepub.com/content/51/2/257.full#ref-
Retrieved 3/292015 from: http://www.adl.org/terrorism/profiles/al_qaeda.asp
Retrieved 3/292015 from: http://www.infoplease.com/spot/al-qaeda-terrorism.html
Retrieved 3/27/2015 from: http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-673275
Retrieved Mach 11/2015 from: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/hist_nf.html
(PBS, Board & NOVA, PBS.org)
Retrieved3/292015from:http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2014/11/18/after-13-years-2-wars-and-trillions-in-military-spending-terrorist-attacks-are-rising-sharply/
Retrieved 3/2/7/2015 from: http://weaselzippers.us/2011/08/28/ron-paul-blames-America-for-911-attacks-islam-not-motivation-for-terrorism-u-s-occupation-is/
