Archaeological Gold Mining Structures from Colonial Period Present in Guarulhos and Mairiporã, São Paulo State, Brazil

Archaeological Gold Mining Structures from Colonial Period Present in Guarulhos and Mairiporã, São Paulo State, Brazil Annabel Pérez-Aguilar, Caetano Juliani, Edson José de Barros, Márcio Roberto Magalhães de Andrade, Elton Soares de Oliveira, et al. Geoheritage ISSN 1867-2477 Volume 5 Number 2 Geoheritage (2013) 5:87-105 DOI 10.1007/s12371-013-0074-8

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Author's personal copy Geoheritage (2013) 5:87–105 DOI 10.1007/s12371-013-0074-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Archaeological Gold Mining Structures from Colonial Period Present in Guarulhos and Mairiporã, São Paulo State, Brazil Annabel Pérez-Aguilar & Caetano Juliani & Edson José de Barros & Márcio Roberto Magalhães de Andrade & Elton Soares de Oliveira & D. de A. Braga & Ricardo Oliveira Santos Received: 13 April 2012 / Accepted: 21 January 2013 / Published online: 10 February 2013 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract Archaeological gold mining structures from the Brazilian colonial period are present in Guarulhos and Mairiporã municipalities, São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil. These structures are represented by dams, tanks, paved and unpaved channels, water ducts, drains, gold mining fronts and benches, gravel refuse piles, stone walls, places to wash and seek gold, and remains of a water-powered iron engine, which have great archaeological, geological, and historical values, covering an area of several square kilometres. Gold was essentially mined in alluvial, colluvial, eluvial, and saprolitic material associated with rocks of the Mesoproterozoic Serra do Itaberaba Group that corresponds to a metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary sequence that outcrops in the central part of the Ribeira fold belt. Some structures are also associated with Neogene alluvial fan conglomerates and proximal alluvial fan mudstones of the Resende Formation within the Taubaté Group, denoting geological reworking processes of Mesoproterozoic

gold. Gold mining archaeological structures from the municipality of Guarulhos are going to be preserved within the scope of the Gold Cycle Geopark that covers an area of 16,900 ha, which was created by Guarulhos’ Municipal Decree No. 25974 of 16 Dec 2008, presently being implemented. However, resources must be obtained in order to recover structures, as well as to promote the construction of visiting frameworks in the places where these structures are present.

A. Pérez-Aguilar (*) Instituto Geológico/Secretaria do Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, Av. Miguel Stéfano, 3900, 04301-903, São Paulo, SP, Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

M. R. M. de Andrade Universidade Guarulhos, Praça Tereza Cristina, 1, 07023-07, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

C. Juliani Instituto de Geociências/Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Lago, 562, 05508-080, São Paulo, SP, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] E. J. de Barros : D. de A. Braga Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, Prefeitura de Guarulhos, Rua Antônio Vita, 253, Jardim Maia, 07114-010, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil E. J. de Barros e-mail: [email protected] D. de A. Braga e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords Archaeology . Gold cycle . Mining structures . Guarulhos . Geopark . Serra do Itaberaba Group

Introduction The value of archaeological mining structures has been recognized worldwide mainly since the 1900s, as can be

E. S. de Oliveira Escola Centro de Convivência Educacional Paulo Freire, Rua Igrejinha, 151, 07151-350, Guarulhos, SP, Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

R. O. Santos Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas/Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Lago, 876, São Paulo, SP, Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

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appreciated in several works. An example that stands out is the presence of structures preserved at Rudna Glava (Ore Head), eastern Serbia, which corresponds to one of the earliest evidences of European copper mining, which was dated 5000– 4950 BC (Maya 2000). A compilation of Roman mines in Europe was done by Davis (1935), which in Portugal was afterwards detailed by Martins (2008). In Spain, the mine of Rio Tinto located in the Pyrite Iberian belt, includes structures ranging from the Chalcolithic period until the Roman Empire (Blanco and Rothemberg 1981). In colonial Spanish America, Petersen (1970a, b), Shimada (1994), and Salazar et al. (2010) relate pre-Hispanic era mining structures present in the Andes mountain range, and a compilation of colonial mines was done by Bargalló (1955) and Bethell (1984). The purpose of this work is to make a description of archaeological gold (Au) mining structures found within the municipalities of Guarulhos and Nazaré Paulista, São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil (Fig. 1). These records hold great archaeological, geological, and historical values in areas that cover several square kilometres. The structures are evidence of a first earlier Au mining cycle during the Brazilian colonial period. Archaeological Au mining structures from the same time interval were described by Carneiro (2000). The latter structures correspond to trenches associated with shear zones, differing from those described here. This work represents a first step in what we hope will constitute a continued succession of multidisciplinary works involving archaeologists, geologists, historians, and sociologists, which can help in the difficult task of recovering a fragment of Brazilian colonial development.

Fig. 1 The red square corresponds to the area of São Paulo State where archaeological gold mining structures from the Brazilian colonial period are located

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Gold mining archaeological structures are mainly associated with Precambrian rocks related to the Serra do Itaberaba Group, which corresponds to a Mesoproterozoic metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary sequence (Juliani 1993; Juliani and Beljavskis 1995; Juliani et al. 2000) that is part of the central segment of the Ribeira fold belt (Almeida et al. 1973). But also some structures are present in Neogene sediments of the Resende Formation, which is part of the Taubaté Group (e.g. Riccomini 1989; Riccomini et al. 2004), denoting geological reworking processes of Mesoproterozoic Au. Syngenetic Au was mainly deposited in the back-arc environment associated with the emplacement of small andesitic to rhyolitic bodies to which are related palaeo-hydrothermal systems, as well as exhalative activity (Juliani 1993; PérezAguilar 1996, 2001; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2000, 2005, 2007, 2011). Metamorphic and deformational events afterwards concentrated Au mainly in folds, sheared rocks, and quartz veins (Juliani 1993; Beljavskis et al. 1999; Garda et al. 2002, 2009; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2012). In the municipality of Guarulhos, archaeological Au mining structures will be preserved within the scope of the Gold Cycle Geopark that covers an area of 16,900 ha, mainly comprising a mountainous region that is part of the Atlantic Plateau (Monbeig 1949). The studied area is of easy access through Presidente Dutra, Fernão Dias, and Ayrton Senna highways and through secondary roads.

Geological Setting The area where archaeological Au mining structures are present corresponds to the central part of the Ribeira fold belt (Almeida et al. 1973) (Fig. 2). Most of these structures are associated with Precambrian rocks that are part of the Mesoproterozoic Serra do Itaberaba Group that is represented by a metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary sequence, which is partially covered by the Neoproterozoic São Roque Group that is a metamorphosed predominantly siliciclastic sedimentary sequence (Juliani and Beljavskis 1995; Juliani et al. 2000; Hackspacher et al. 2000, 2001) (Fig. 3). Rocks from the Serra do Itaberaba Group are intruded by several Neoproterozoic to Cambrian syn- to postcollisional granitoids and were affected by several NE-SW trending shear zones (Almeida et al. 1981). The Serra do Itaberaba Group was first deposited in a geological environment characterized by the presence of normal-mid-ocean ridge basalt (N-MORB) that afterwards developed into a back-arc environment. Rocks comprising this group were affected by two progressive regional metamorphic events that record clockwise P-T-t paths (Juliani et al. 1997). The first event occurred during the Mesoproterozoic characterizing a Barrowian medium-pressure event (490– 650 °C; 4–7 kbar) and the second one occurred during the

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Fig. 2 Regional geological map showing blue rectangle region where archaeological gold mining structures are present (after Sachs and Morais 1999; based on Perrota et al. 2005). Blue rectangle corresponds to Fig. 3 area

Neoproterozoic, characterizing an Abukuma low-pressure event (500–580 °C; 4–4.7 kbar). Afterwards, rocks were affected by a low-grade retrometamorphic event. The Serra do Itaberaba Group is composed, from base to top, of the Morro da Pedra Preta, Jardim Fortaleza, Nhanguçu, and Pirucaia formations (Juliani et al., Geologia da Folha Leste de Atibaia (SF-23-Y-D-I)-Escala 1:100.000. Programa Geologia do Brasil-Levantamentos Geológicos Básicos IGcUSP/CPRM/MME-SGMTM, unpublished) (Fig. 3). The Morro da Pedra Preta Formation is mainly composed of metamorphosed normal N-MORB with pillow lavas, as well as the metamorphic products of basic to acid volcaniclastic rocks, tuffs, and tuffites. The Jardim Fortaleza Formation is composed of schists that include metapelites, graphitic schists, sulphiderich schists, and manganiferous schists, with subordinate metamorphosed basalts, basic to acid tuffs, tuffites, calc-silicate rocks, Algoma-type banded-iron formations and tourmalinites. The Nhanguçu Formation is composed of iron-manganiferous schists, calc-silicate schists, and small lenses of metamorphosed basalts and tuffs, and marbles, covered by andalusitechlorite schists. Sediments associated with this latter formation were deposited in a back-arc basin environment produced by a westward ensimatic subduction. The Pirucaia Formation comprises quartzites and quartz-rich schists that correspond to shoreline sedimentary facies within a back-arc basin. In the upper part of the Morro da Pedra Preta Formation, small dome-like brecciated bodies of andesite, dacite, rhyodacite, and rhyolite that are surrounded by volcanic breccias

and tuffs were emplaced during back-arc evolution, to which are genetically associated some palaeo-hydrothermal systems. These systems were responsible for the presence of extensive chloritic alteration zones (CZ1), which were crosscut by not extensive chloritic (CZ2), argillic, and advanced argillic alteration zones (Juliani et al. 1994; Pérez-Aguilar 1996, 2001; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2005, 2007, 2011), being chloritic alteration zones similar to those associated with Kuroko-type volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits (e.g. Franklin et al. 1981; Franklin 1993; Ohmoto 1996; Shikazono 2003). The metamorphic products of CZ1 are rocks mainly composed of variable amounts of Mg amphibole (anthophyllite, gedrite, and/or cummingtonite)±Mgcordierite±garnet, whereas those related to CZ2 are rocks mainly composed of magnesiohornblende+tschermakite±Mg chlorite or Mg chlorite+cummingtonite±garnet±plagioclase (Pérez-Aguilar 1996, 2001; PérezAguilar et al. 2007). The metamorphic products of argillic and advanced argillic alteration zones are rocks composed of margarite±corundum±rutile or of topaz±rutile (Juliani et al. 1994; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2011). Also genetically associated with palaeo-hydrothermal systems and associated exhalative activity are tourmalinites, garnet-amphibolites, iron-manganiferous metapelites, sulphide-rich metapelites, as well as the metamorphic products of carbonatized, potassified, and silicified zones (Juliani 1993; Pérez-Aguilar 1996, 2001; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2005, 2007; Garda et al. 2003, 2009; Beljavskis et al. 2005). Syngenetic Au mineralisation, as well as argillic and

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Fig. 3 Geological map showing geological units associated with the Serra do Itaberaba, São Roque and Taubaté groups (Juliani et al., Geologia da Folha Leste de Atibaia (SF-23-Y-D-I)-Escala 1:100.000. Programa Geologia do Brasil-Levantamentos Geológicos Básicos IGcUSP/CPRM/MME-SGMTM, unpublished) that outcrop in the central

part of the Ribeira fold belt (Almeida et al. 1973). The black dots correspond to sites with archaeological gold mining structures, corresponding 1 to 6 to Tapera Grande, 7 to Nhanguçu, 8 to Tanque Grande, 9 and 10 to Cidade Soberana, and 11 to Jardim Hanna

advanced argillic alteration zones are genetically associated with palaeo-hydrothermal systems and associated exhalative activity (Juliani 1993; Beljavskis et al. 1993, 1999; Garda et al. 2002; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2011). The São Roque Group is comprised, from base to top, of the Pirapora do Bom Jesus (metabasites and carbonatic metasediments), Morro Doce (polymict meta-conglomerates, metaarkoses, and phyllites), Boturuna (metamorphosed sandstones and feldspathic sandstones), Estrada dos Romeiros (rhythmic metasediments), and Jordanésia (rhythmic metasediments and graphitic metasediments) formations (Juliani et al., Geologia da Folha Leste de Atibaia (SF-23-Y-D-I)-Escala 1:100.000. Programa Geologia do Brasil-Levantamentos Geológicos

Básicos IGc-USP/CPRM/MME-SGMTM, unpublished). In the area, only geological units of the Morro Doce, Estrada dos Romeiros, and Jordanésia formations outcrop (Fig. 3). Neogene sediments of the São Paulo Basin make up part of the Southeast Brazilian Continental Rift and comprise the Taubaté Group (e.g. Riccomini 1989; Riccomini et al. 2004). The latter group includes Resende (deposits associated with alluvial fans and a braided fluvial system), Tremembé (lake related deposits), and São Paulo formations (deposits associated with a meandering fluvial system). In the area, only sediments from the Resende Formation are present, which correspond to alluvial fan conglomerates with intercalations of layers of coarse- to fine grained

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sandstones, clayey siltstones, mudstones, and proximal alluvial fan clast-rich mudstones (Fig. 3).

Gold Mineralisations Since the 1980s, Au from the Serra do Itaberaba Group has been better studied, having been characterized as syngenetic and epigenetic Au mineralisations. Weathering and mechanical reworking of material formed secondary deposits in alluviums, eluviums, colluviums, and saprolitic material, as well as in Neogene sediments. Syngenetic Au mineralisation is associated with a specific stratigraphical horizon that corresponds to the interface between the metamorphosed volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Morro da Pedra Preta Formation and the metapelitic rocks of the Jardim Fortaleza Formation. Gold mineralisations are essentially associated with small metamorphosed intermediate to acid volcanic bodies and associated volcaniclastic rocks that promoted hydrothermal and exhalative activity, or associated with metabasites from the volcanic unit. Within this context Au mineralisations are also associated with graphitic metapelites, tourmalinites, metamorphosed silicified zones, and calc-silicate lenses that sometimes may be sulphur rich (Juliani 1993; Juliani et al. 1994; Beljavskis et al. 1993, 1999; Garda et al. 2002; Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2011). Au is very finegrained (less than 74 μm), being mainly associated with pyrrhotite and pyrite, and subordinately, to chalcopyrite, with contents that vary from 0.06 to more than 13 ppm, correlated to Ag contents that vary from 0.06 to 0.6 ppm. Rocks with higher Au contents correspond to metamorphosed intermediate and exhalative rocks (Juliani 1993; Beljavskis et al. 1993). Epigenetic Au mineralisations are hosted by quartz veins related to shear, thrust, and transcurrent fault zones that usually vary between 0.5 and 1.5 m, or accompanying pervasive sulphidation that crosscut metamorphosed mainly basic volcaniclastic rocks and metapelites (Juliani 1993; Beljavskis et al. 1993, 1999; Garda et al. 2002). More coarse grained free Au is associated with chalcocite and covellite, products of chalcopyrite alteration, whereas Au associated with chalcopyrite and pyrite fills cavities, sulphide microfractures, or grows along faces and corners of previous pyrite crystals (Garda et al. 2002). Au contents vary from 0.11 to 11.2 ppm, locally having been obtained 25.6 ppm, whereas Ag contents vary from 0.05 to 1.8 ppm (Juliani 1993; Beljavskis et al. 1999). In the rocks of the Morro da Pedra Preta Formation, four sulphidation stages associated with Au mineralisation were recognized, having been characterised in the two first stages syngenetic Au mineralisation and the other two epigenetic ones (Garda et al. 2002) (Fig. 4). Negative δ34S values obtained for stage I pyrrhotite, varying between −8.7 and −5.5‰, suggest bacterial reduction of seawater sulphate with contributions of sulphur associated with hydrothermal

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volcanogenic fluids exhaled from fumaroles. Positive δ34S obtained for stage II pyrite and pyrrhotite, varying between +4.5 and +7.4‰, were interpreted as the result of the mixture of several sulphur sources including magmatic-rich hydrothermal fluids associated with emplacement of small bodies of andesites and rhyodacites, leaching of igneous sulphide present in the volcanic pile by seawater convection cells, and minor sulphide originated from thermochemical reduction of small amounts of sulphates precipitated in fissures. Positive values obtained for stages III and IV chalcopyrite, pyrite, molybdenite, and galena vary from +1.0 and +3.6‰, which were attributed to a mixture of sulphur from volcanicsedimentary sequences, leached by pervasive to fissure percolation of I-type granite derived fluids.

Archaeological Gold Mining Structures During the Brazilian colonial period, within the Capitania of San Vicente (Bueno 2009), the regions of Guarulhos, Jaraguá, Pirapora do Bom Jesus, and Sorocaba, now part of São Paulo State, and Paranaguá, now comprising Paraná State, are pointed out by several authors as being pioneers in Au exploration (Leme 1772a, b; Saint-Hilaire 1819, 1851; Eschwege 1833a, b; Andrada 1847, 1882; Oliveira 1892; Derby 1889; Calógeras 1904; Egas 1925; Martins 1943; Neme 1959; Hutter and Nogueira 1966; Marques 1980; Varela 2007, among others). The decay of Au mining activity took place at the beginning of nineteenth century as certified by several authors (Mawe 1812; Eschwege 1833a, b; Noronha 1960). The mines from Guarulhos produced a large quantity of Au through time, covering tens of square kilometres (Noronha 1960). Controversies exist among different authors in relation when the above related Au ores were discovered. As a consequence, the interval between 1553 and 1597 can be considered as corresponding to the beginning of Brazil’s first Au mining cycle that covered about 200 years. However, agreement exists that in the first years of the seventeenth century, Au mining activity was well established, representing an important economic activity. This first Au mining cycle is usually ignored by historians, who consider that the Brazilian Au cycle covers from 1690 to 1750 (e.g. Bethell 1984). These Au mines began to be exploited by Indian slaves (Leme 1772a, b). But as Indians were largely annihilated (Bethell 1984), it is also probable that African slaves were used, as suggested by Noronha (1960). Knecht (1939) reports Au ores in three localities of Guarulhos municipality, corresponding to Aroeira Chata, Fazenda Caxambu, and Lavras Stream, whereas Knecht (1950) relates several Au-mined streams (Lavras, Guaraçau, Tomé Gonçalves, and Itaberaba streams) and old Au mines (Aroeira Chata, Fazenda Caxambu, Catas Velhas, Tanque Grande, and those located in the lands of P. Grassmann and

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Fig. 4 Schematic diagram showing the formation of syndepositional sulphide and Au mineralisations in the Serra do Itaberaba Group (Garda et al. 2002)

Dona Eder) in Guarulhos. A summary of Au mining techniques used in Guarulhos’ Au mines can be found in Juliani et al. (1995) and, some more details are in Noronha (1960). Gold was mainly exploited in alluvial, colluvial, eluvial, and saprolitic material in areas crossed by the Lavras, Tomé Gonçalves, Guaraçau, Baquirivu-Guaçu (Juliani et al. 1995), and Tanque Grande streams. Most mining works have probably started in alluviums located downstream of the mining area because these sediments must have been very rich in Au and were easily exploited. Requiring more efforts and improved techniques, including transportation of water to higher topographic elevations in relation to associated streams, in the sequence, palaeo-alluvium and colluvium deposits must have been mined. After these ores were exhausted, eluviums and saprolitic material were mined. Locally, palaeo-alluviums greater than 2 m in thickness were mined, until arriving at fresh rock, as a consequence of Au concentration due to lateritic processes. Fresh mylonitic rocks and quartz veins enriched in Au were also mined. Gold was separated from quartz veins by using a crusher, one of which probably was located upstream of the Lavras Stream, where now can be seen remains of a more modern water-powered iron engine used for the same purpose (Knecht 1939; Noronha 1960), which afterwards will be described. The presence of mining fronts associated with sheared fresh rock outcrops that are located in the neighbourhood of what remains from this waterpowered iron engine, indicate that probably not only Aurich quartz veins were triturated but maybe also Aumineralised sheared fresh rock. A set of dams was associated with Au mining activity, which allowed water concentration in higher places, making

possible the existence of several mining fronts at the same time. Water deviation from the main drain or stream was achieved by using channels or abandoned meanders. Some of these channels had more than 2 km in length. In steep slopes, paved channels’ walls were built with juxtaposed mainly quartz vein boulders. In some probably more modern-paved channels, boulders were cemented with mortar. Frequently, channel systems, some of which were parallel, were built at different topographic altitudes, indicating from the worse preserved state of those located in lower altitudes, that mining processes probably started from lower towards higher altitudes (Fig. 5). For Au mining, an area denominated taboleiro (rectangular area) was isolated. In higher topographical altitudes, water supply to these areas was provided by a drain connected to dams, which could measure tens of metres in length, whereas in the lower topographic altitudes water was provided by a parallel drain. Gold-rich soils were washed from a ribbon of some metre in width, located lateral to the channel, whose depth generally reached weathered rock or the base of colluvium horizon. Soil was manually removed and thrown inside the channel, where Au was washed removing clay and silt particles, as well as pebbles, cobbles, and boulders, which were settled in the borders of the channel forming piles of gravel refuse, which generally are rich in quartz vein fragments. Some slaves remained inside the channel mixing the water in order to wash the Au. When material from the deeper part of the channel was significantly free of finegrained and coarse fragments, the floor was scratched with a hoe with the aid of a water flow and material was transported to a small basin that was built in a lower topographic

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Fig. 5 Archaeological Au mining structures from the Brazilian colonial period present in Lavras stream riverhead showing: drains (1, 2); parallel channel in relation to mining bench (3); small dam associated with principal excavation (4); Au mined in alluvial sediments (5);

deviation of stream through a parallel channel in order to mine alluvial sediments (6); gravel refuse pile (7); channel associated with dam (8); parallel and secondary channels (9); place to seek and to use the Au pan (10); and mining benches (11) (Juliani et al. 1995)

altitude. In these small basins Au was separated and concentrated using a Au pan, by seeking or by using a woven tissue. As Au was heavy it remained in the woven tissue, which afterwards was sun-dried and in the sequence it was pressed with a piece of leather in order to release Au. On eluvium and saprolitic material Au was mined in the form of benches. If material was Au rich but water transport to the place was not possible or difficult due to altitude, Au ore was carried by slaves and concentrated in streams, channels, or washing areas where it was separated. Although, in some places, in order to remove Au-rich material present in high altitudes towards lower altitudes, material from surrounding areas was brought by slaves and dropped into drains that carried it with relative less amount of water towards small dams, streams, channels, or washing areas where Au was then separated. To the above-described structures are also associated vestiges of stone walls, which were generally built using fresh rock fragments from surrounding outcrops. Also, an iron crusher used to triturate quartz veins, as well as two crucibles used to melt Au were found close to Au exploited areas. Today, archaeological Au mining structures from colonial period are preserved in six main different areas: Tapera Grande, Nhanguçu, Tanque Grande, Cidade Soberana, and

Jardim Hanna. Black dots associated with numbers 1 to 11 within Fig. 3 represent locations of sets of structures. In relation to these areas, numbers 1 to 6 are associated with Tapera Grande, 7 is Nhanguçu, 8 is Tanque Grande, 9 and 10 for Cidade Soberana, and 11 is Jardim Hanna. A summary of types of structures, representative features, as well as rocks and sediments associated with these different areas can be seen in Table 1. Tapera Grande Area This is the most extensive area where abundant Au mining archaeological structures are present, including several dams, water ducts, tanks, water drains, paved and unpaved channels, sets of parallel channels, gravel refuse piles, stone walls, mining fronts and benches, places to wash, seek and to use the Au pan, as well as a relative modern waterpowered iron engine. Part of this area corresponds to the Au-rich Fazenda Caxambu and Catas Velhas old Au mine reported by Knecht (1950). Several water stone ducts were discovered in the Tapera Grande area (Fig. 3; No. 1–4). Building techniques from most ducts are similar, showing lateral walls partially covered by stone slabs that make up the roof, stone slabs that pave the floor, as well as elaborated extremities. Stone slabs used measure up to 1.80 m in length by 0.70 m in width and

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Table 1 Summary of types of archaeological structures, representative features, and rocks and sediments associated with different areas Area/number within Fig. 3/geographical coordinates in WGS84

Archaeological gold mining structures and associated features

Associated rocks and/or sediments

Characteristics of ducts

Tapera GrandeProgresso School Farm/No. 1/23°18′ 28″ S and 46°25′ 31″ W

20-m length duct

Metatuffs and metabasic rocks

Tapera GrandeProgresso School Farm/No. 2/23°18′ 46″ S and 46°25′ 34″ W

20-m length duct

Metatuffs and metabasic rocks

Tapera Grande-small farms/No. 3/23°19′ 15″ S and 46°25′ 34″ W

40-m length ducts, dams, gold washing areasa, and mining fronts

Sheared metatuffs

Tapera GrandeBarbosa st/No. 4/ 23°19′58″ S and 46°25′55″ W

96- and 86-m length ducts, small lakes, and mining fronts

Sheared graphitic metapelites and metatuffs, and minor metabasic, metacherts, and quartz veins

Tapera Grand-Stone Pond/No. 5/23°20′ 10″ S and 46°25′ 05″ W Tapera Granderiverhead of Lavras st/No. 6/23°20′38″ S and 46°24′59″ W

Vestiges of a water reservoir, stone walls, and mining fronts

Sheared metattufs

Covered by soil and vegetation, appearing only its extremities, being very well conserved inside. In representative upstream exit, 1.70and 1.85-m-wide stone walls support 4.60 m in length by up to 0.46 m in width stone frame, having water escape 1 m wide and 1.22 m high Water discharges in a 0.90-m-wide inclined channel sculptured in in situ fresh metabasic rock, which projects itself inside the duct. The downstream exit shows a 3.60-m-wide by 2.60-mhigh stone wall, cut by a 0.90-m-wide by 0.50-m-high water escape, which is 1 m above the floor Only downstream exits are preserved in both of them and the rest of one of them having been buried. In representative downstream exit, 1.30-m-wide stone walls support 3.20 m in length stone frame, having water escape 0.60 m wide by 0.45 m high. The external roof is made up of not worked and partially removed rock fragments that contrast with carefully worked inner part In representative downstream exit, 1.30- and 1.80-m-wide stone walls support 4.50 m in length by 0.40 m in width stone frame, having water escape 1 m wide and 0.80 m high –

Water reservoirs, dams, tanks, drains, paved and unpaved single or parallel channels, gravel refuse piles, stone walls, mining front and benches, gold washing areas, and a water-powered iron engine Artificial lakes, main duct interconnected to secondary ducts, tanks, stone walls, and enlarged st valley

Meta-andesites/rhyodacites, basic to intermediate metattufs and metavolcaniclastic rocks, quartz veins, and alluvium

–

Sheared metatuffites, metattufs, and quartz veins, and alluvium

Underground main stone water duct is interconnected to secondary ducts exhibiting brick cemented parts. Main duct with stone walls that exhibit irregular surface but carefully worked roof. Highs vary where the principal duct interconnects with tributary ducts –

Nhanguçu-Guaraçaú st/No. 7/23°21′36″ S and 46°24′04″ W

Tanque GrandeTanque Grande st/ No. 8/23°22′31″ S and 46°27′29″ W Cidade SoberanaLavras st/No. 9/23°

Water reservoir, dams, filled up abandoned meander, tunnel, tanks, drains, paved and unpaved channels, stone walls, gold washing areas, and enlarged st valleys Dams, drains, abandoned meanders scars, paved and unpaved single or parallel channels, stone walls, gravel

Sheared graphitic metapelites and alluvium

Sheared graphitic metapelites, metatuffs and metatuffites, and quartz veins

–

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Table 1 (continued) Area/number within Fig.3/geographical coordinates in WGS84

Archaeological gold mining structures and associated features

Associated rocks and/or sediments

Characteristics of ducts

23′03″ S and 46° 26′09″ W Cidade SoberanaICS/No. 10/23°23′ 47″ S and 46°26′ 03″ W Jardim Hanna/No. 11/23°24′21″S and 46°25′46″ W

refuse piles, mining fronts, gold washing areas, and enlarged st valley Partially paved channels, gravel refuse piles, and open areas for gold separation present in sediments

Locally sheared graphitic metapelites and clayey silty sediments

–

Conglomeratic sediments and clayey sediments

–

Partially paved channels, mining fronts, gravel refuse piles, and gold washing areas

st stream, ICM Imaculada Conceição Seminary, “–” absence of duct a

Places to wash, seek, and to use the gold pan

0.40 m in height, and were generally carefully placed to fit one into the other. It is possible to observe in most of them remains of original floor stone slabs, as well as silted up extremities. In ducts, remains of small centimetric round holes, up to 50 cm depth, are present. These holes were made in order to dismantle rock outcrops and produce stone slabs. Probably holes were drilled with the aid of a metal instrument and afterwards a wetted rounded piece of wood was placed in order to increase its volume and promote rupture of rock where desired. From these ducts, the most representative are those two that are associated with Barbosa stream (Fig. 3; No. 4) (Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2012), which is a tributary from the Tomé Gonçalves stream. After Knecht (1950) alluvial sediments associated with the Tomé Gonçalves stream were Au rich. The length of both ducts is up to 96 and 86 m length, respectively (Fig. 6). These ducts were built with calc-silicate and metatuff stone slabs whereas the other ducts were built with metabasic and basic metavolcaniclastic and metatuff stone slabs. Upstream from the ducts are three small ponds that today correspond to fragmented parts of a dam. In this site, Au was essentially mined in a later mean N60° E fault plane that crosscuts mainly sheared graphitic metapelites and metatuffs, and subordinately, sheared metabasic, metacherts, and quartz veins with mean Sm N77° W/32° NE. Gold was mined in soil, eluvial and saprolitic material, as well as in a large amount of fresh rocks. Fresh rock mining must have been justified because it is located close to a volcanic exhalative centre that would be responsible for the presence of syngenetic Au ore, as attested by a hillside with in situ tourmalinites and metamorphosed silicified zones and associated boulders. Afterwards, Au was concentrated due to metamorphic and deformation processes, having been concentrated abundantly in intersections where a fault plane overprints a shearing zone and in associated quartz veins. Probably fresh rock was triturated in a

more primitive water-powered iron engine that could have been present in neighbourhood, as discussed later. After mining Au in the intersection planes, which can be deduced by the presence of channels up to 4 m in width that followed later fault plane that are associated with mining fronts up to 20 m in height, the two ducts were built in order to provide water downstream for Au mining in lower topographic altitudes. Water supply came from a dam located in the upper part of the hill. The smallest duct was built in a high declivity land that helped transport water by gravity. Southeast and downstream of these representative ducts, weathered metatuffs were Au mined also in the intersection of a sheared zone (Sm N50°E/10°NW) with later fault planes (N30/84° SE and N60° W/62° NE). After the area was mined for Au a dam was built, whose vestiges are today known as the Stone Pond (Fig. 3; No. 5). Remains of stone walls that measure up to 3.70 m in height, and mining fronts are still preserved. In the Progresso School Farm, there are also two other 20-m-length ducts. Both structures, which are the only ones located in the Mairiporã municipality (Fig. 3; No. 1 and 2), were built for water capture and transport, as can be deduced by the presence of several small lakes located downstream from these ducts, probably for Au mining in alluvial sediments located in an abnormally enlarged valley downstream, which afterwards was flattened for agriculture, presently covering an area of 60,000 m2. However, Au mining structures were not found in this farm. One of the ducts differs in the way it captures water upstream and how water escapes downstream. Water that is captured through a lateral rock fissure discharges in a 0.90-m-wide inclined channel, sculptured in in situ fresh metabasic rock, which projects itself inside the duct, covering part of its 20 m length. Part of the upper access to the duct was also sculptured in the fresh rock, where the depositional surface S0 is approximately horizontal, and over which was built a

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Fig. 6 Aspects of a water duct associated with Barbosa stream showing upstream exit (a), downstream exit (b), inner part (c), and outer part (d)

rectangular 0.30 m high stone frame. Upon this first frame was recently built another 0.35-m high stone frame, in order to lose less water during rainy seasons. The downstream exit was partially rebuilt and shows a 2.60-m high by 3.60-mwide stone wall, cut by a 0.90-m-wide by 0.50-m-high water escape, which is 1 m above the floor. Within small farms are also present two 40 m length ducts (Fig. 3; No. 3), with downstream exits preserved in both of them, and the rest of one of them having been buried. Ducts are also associated with small ponds located downstream but evidence shows that ponds were also located upstream. In the neighbourhood, Au mining fronts tens of metres in length by up to 20 m in height were found in weathered and sheared (Sm N30°/44° SE) metatuffs. The not buried duct was built near a later N40° W fault plane with evidence that suggests it was an old Au mining place. The set of features observed in this place suggest that first soil, eluvial and saprolitic material was mined in restricted areas associated with small dams and afterwards ducts were built in order to establish a water system to carry water downstream towards the large valley associated with the Progresso School Farm. Within Tapera Grande area, in the riverhead of Lavras stream, is the site where more abundant preserved Au mining archaeological structures are now present, covering an area of 138.15 ha, corresponding to small lakes, dams, tanks, drains, paved and unpaved single or parallel channels, gravel refuse piles, stone walls, mining front and benches, places to wash, seek and to use the Au pan, which are associated with a more modern water-powered iron engine (Fig. 3; No. 6). After Knecht (1950) Lavras stream was Au rich in its whole way and in this place the presence of the Catas Velhas

old Au mine was indicated. Structures are present in alluviums, eluviums, colluviums, and saprolitic material linked with small bodies of metamorphosed andesite/rhyodacites that are surrounded by basic to intermediate metatuffs and metavolcaniclastic rocks and associated with abundant Aumineralized quartz veins. Several factors contributed to Au enrichment in this mine. Hydrothermal activity associated with emplacement of small igneous bodies was responsible for syngenetic Au ore, as well as the presence of a nearby exhalative volcanic centre, as previously described. In addition, regionally the area is part of the flank and hinge of a huge D2 fold (Juliani 1993), the rocks having been affected by several faults. In this site, part of the mountain was dismantled in order to mine soil, eluvial, and saprolitic material, modifying its morphology and creating artificial scarps that correspond to mining fronts. The presence of several metric tanks that are associated with small lakes, which were used as water reservoirs for Au mining processes, suggest that Au-rich material obtained from dismantled mountain, or part of it, was separated in these tanks. Upstream from the small lakes, stone paved channels predominate, which are present in different topographic altitudes. Lakes must have supplied water downstream where small dams, water drains, not paved or partially paved parallel and secondary channels, gravel refuse piles, mining fronts and benches, open areas for washing and separating Au, and mined areas associated with alluviums predominate (Fig. 7a–e). The set of built structures (Juliani et al. 1995) (Fig. 5) associated with geological features supply information about methods of Au mining during the colonial period. In 23°20′39″ S and 46°25′38″ W geographical coordinates (WGS84), associated with the Paraiso stream that is a

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Fig. 7 Aspects of Au mining archaeological structures associated with the riverhead of Lavras stream showing a mining front in saprolitic material derived from metamorphosed basic volcaniclastic rocks (brown orange) with intercalations of graphitic metapelites (grey) (a);

remains of a paved channel (b); water drains (c–e) with associated stone wall (c); water-powered iron engine (f); and associated Au washing area (g)

tributary from the Lavras stream, there are remains of a relatively big and more modern water-powered iron engine, a chimney, water drains, not cemented older stone walls, more modern stone walls, brick walls, as well as three Au benefit process tanks and a relatively big area for Au washing located downstream from the water-powered iron engine, which is connected to two small lakes (Fig. 7f, g). Stone walls were mainly built with metabasic rocks and basic metavolcaniclastic rocks and metastuffs. Probably this water-powered iron engine substituted a more primitive one, which would have been strategically located in relation to the riverhead of Lavras stream and Barbosa stream, the former having abundant Au-rich quartz veins and the latter with the presence of Au-rich mylonitic fresh rock. Remains of the water-powered iron engine show a bigger wheel, with a diameter of about 10 m, enclosed between two 4.5-m-high walls. Outside from the lateral walls a smaller 1 m diameter iron biting wheel is present. The biggest wheel must have had small wooden boxes placed in its external part. Water carried through a drain, part of which is preserved, filled upper boxes with water making one side of the structure heavier, promoting the wheel’s movement. Water potential energy was transferred to the smallest wheel that

must have moved a mortar used to triturate fresh rock and quartz veins in order to release Au. There are remains of stone walls that show flat surfaces because stones were carefully fitted into each other, being similar to those found in some stone walls and paved channels present in other Au-mined places. However, in this place stone walls that compose an irregular surface due to salience of not-cut stones predominate. These walls make up the lower part of lateral water-powered iron engine walls, as well as several associated stone walls. The upper part of lateral water-powered iron engine walls, as well as the chimney and associated tanks were built with bricks and cement. The set of archaeological structures found in this place suggest that Au concentration and probably Au mining were carried out in at least three different lapses of time. Walls that exhibit a flat surface can be associated with the first mining works carried out during the beginning of the seventeenth century, whereas those that show an irregular surface must have been built later, probably during the eighteenth century, for processes mainly associated with Au concentration. The parts built with bricks and cement without doubt were built during twentieth century, having as

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the final aim retaking Au mining activities in this place, as related by Noronha (1960). Nhanguçu Area In the base of the Nhanguçu hill, preserved archaeological Au mining structures comprise stone-wall ruins and a several hundred metres underground main duct interconnected to secondary ducts, which are associated with an artificial pond that discharges water into three rectangular metric tanks built in the floor, that in sequence discharge water into Água Azul Lake. Some tanks are subdivided into minor tanks. The main duct was built following the path of a small tributary of the Guaraçau stream where in situ sheared quartz vein blocs are present in its riverhead (Fig. 3; No. 7). This Au-mined area was linked with a 4-km valley from the Guaraçau stream, corresponding to the Lavras-Velhasdo-Geraldo (Old Geraldos’s Mines), which was referred in documents from the year of 1639 as corresponding to the Mines of Geraldo Corrêa (Noronha 1960). After Noronha (1960), this was the biggest Au exploited area in Guarulhos and probably the vastest one from São Paulo and, after Knecht (1939, 1950), it corresponds to the Aroeira Chata area where Au-rich alluvial sediments and quartz veins were present. In the past the whole valley was full of channels associated with lateral stone piles disposed in its borders (Noronha 1960), characterizing intense Au mining activity, whereas landscapes of the Guaraçau stream show an abnormally enlarged stream valley near the Nhanguçu mountain where the artificial lake of Água Azul measures 370 m in length and 100 m in its widest part. Present features indicate that first was built a stone water duct system, which was modified later. However, the height of stone walls varies between 1.20 and 1.50 m, locally suggesting 1.80 m. Heights vary where the principal duct interconnects with orthogonal tributary ducts. The main duct has five openings that connect on the outside. The two more upstream openings allow a lateral access, while the other three connect on the outside through square mouths. Openings were constructed with bricks and cement in order to preserve the water duct system due to earth filling operations. In the more upper stream lateral opening, a reconstruction process suggests that it corresponded to the place where the principal duct received at least a tributary duct, due to the presence of a partially preserved 0.35 m in width stone frame built above the roof, on top of which was placed another flat stone slab. Here, within the main duct’s path, it is possible to observe 0.50 m of unevenness, a fact that suggests that it must have represented a water reception tank that helped to control water flow and pressure. Afterwards this place was reconstructed with cemented bricks. Two other orthogonal tributary ducts are present about 10 m

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upstream from this opening. The other lateral opening was associated with recent construction of a water tank. In this place part of one of the older stone wall was replaced by a brick cemented wall that makes part of the water tank. The square openings have different depths that can measure up to 3 m. In that one located more upstream, it is possible to observe that the lower part was stone built and the upper part was brick built. Conversely, the other two square openings show that downstream prolongation of the main duct was brick built in order to transport water towards the main stream. Another tributary duct that flows into the pond was built entirely with cemented bricks, feeding this pond with water. This latter duct is about 20 m in length by 0.70 m in height and 0.60 m in width, going underneath and feeding a fountain. Lateral parts of the pond exhibit stone walls. Also a vestige of a stone wall was found upstream from the duct system that must have made part of a dam which collected water to feed the duct system. The tank system covers an area of about 6,900 m2. The set of structures suggests that the stone duct system and stone walls were probably constructed during the eighteenth century, because of its similarities with later stone walls associated with the above-described water-powered iron engine. Stone ducts were used to transport water collected in the dam towards the pond and associated tanks, whereas brick walls were constructed during the twentieth century due to earth filling processes, in order to guarantee water supply downstream. Due to the presence of in situ fragments of sheared quartz veins, stone ducts were probably also built after the place was Au mined, as observed in the Tapera Grande area. Tanks are interpreted as corresponding to Au washing and separating areas that received Au-rich alluvial, colluvial and soil material that came from the neighbourhood through time. The brick extension of the main duct probably was done in order to transport water towards a Au washing area used during the twentieth century. Due to the dimensions of this mining place (Noronha 1960) not only tanks but the whole place could have corresponded to a relatively big Au washing area where Au was separated from alluvial sediments that surround the lake but maybe also from the huge amounts of soil, colluvial, and eluvial material that could have been removed from associated hillsides, including Guaraçau riverhead ones, justifying the presence of tanks and lake dimensions. It is possible that in the past similar tank systems were present in the whole neighbourhood. Tanque Grande Area Several types of archaeological Au mining structures are still preserved, associated with Tanque Grande water reservoir and stream (Fig. 3; No. 8), which are distributed at several topographical altitudes, comprising small dams,

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tanks, water drains, channels, which may or not have paved rock walls, as well as a tunnel, stone walls, a water-filled abandoned meander, and small areas where Au was washed and separated (Fig. 8). Gold-rich rock was sheared and folded graphitic metapelites. The tunnel is 17.27 m in length and 1.60 m in its biggest height. Its roof is irregular and was sculptured in sheared and faulted fresh rock. Upstream and downstream exits are 1.27 m wide by 1.22 m height and 1.15 m wide by 1.25 m height, respectively (Fig. 8a, b). Upstream it is associated with a 90 m water drain, which presently arrives near the Tanque Grande reservoir about 2 m higher than present day reservoir water level. Downstream of the tunnel are some drain fragments. A stone wall roughly 50 m in length and 3 m in height is located near the actual reservoir (Fig. 8c, d). Upstream of the reservoir several small dams are present denoting a water-rich hydrographical basin. In a lower topographic altitude, near the actual Tanque Grande stream path an abandoned meander filled with water can be seen, and associated with the stream are several small dams and tanks. Here the stream runs through a relatively well-preserved paved channel (Fig. 8e) that before discharging water in a small water well, through a waterfall, was excavated in fresh sheared graphitic metapelites. The channel measures 0.70 m in width by 1.90 m depth.

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This set of structures is present in a micro-hydrographical basin from Tanque Grande stream near reservoir. In another micro-hydrographical basin located downstream from the last one, the most abundant archaeological structures correspond to unpaved channels, which can measure more than 2 m in height and 1 m in width and correspond to water drains. Remains of a drain that locally preserves about 800 m in length (Fig. 8f) presently goes through one of the hillsides associated with the Tanque Grande hydrographical basin and is interconnected to several other upstream and downstream drains. Nearby areas associated with most of these secondary drains exhibit features showing that areas were modified by removing soil, colluviums, and eluvial material. Upstream, the 800 m long main drain finishes where it intersects at a small tributary that presently discharges a large amount of water during the rainy season. One small dam is located in the bottom of hillside where the water drain system is, and another is located on the opposite side where remains of stone walls are still visible, having both about 50 m in diameter. Here, the stream valley was abnormally enlarged. Features suggest that at Tanque Grande area, mining activities first started upstream near a reservoir in relative higher topographic altitudes by capturing water from this

Fig. 8 Archaeological Au mining structures from the area of Tanque Grande showing a tunnel (a) and its inner part (b); stone wall associated with prior dam (c) with detail of this wall (d); paved water channel (e); and aspect of an 800-m water drain (f)

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reservoir through the drain and the tunnel, which probably discharged water through another drain or drain system into channels parallel to mining benches or into washing areas where Au was separated from eluvial, colluvial and soil material that came from the hillsides. This is attested by drain fragments present downstream of the tunnel. Structures where Au was separated were not preserved. Afterwards, mining activities progressively advanced towards lower topographic altitudes until arriving at the river stream altitude, as attested by the presence of a well preserved paved channel through which stream runs, as well as a well preserved stone wall associated with a reservoir. This reservoir indicates that a dam already existed in the same place for Au mining and that it could have been rebuilt in a different place as now is, probably some metres further downstream. This could have had implications for the water level of the reservoir. An abandoned meander, tanks and the well were used for washing and separating Au and attest, together with channel cut in fresh rock, that the stream level was modified, and denoting that nearby alluvial sediments were Au washed. In this sequence, after the first micro-hydrographical basin was Au mined, activities proceeded towards the second micro-hydrographical basin. Features suggest that Au was first mined in alluvial, colluvial, and soil material associated with the stream, having mining activities in an abnormally enlarged stream valley. Water sources came from repressed stream and associated dams, as well as small dams which could also have been used to wash and separate Au. Afterwards, hillsides were mined. A main drain, part of which is 800 m long, segmented the hillside in to approximately two hundreds of square metres of rectangular areas, following the orientation of the water divisor. Upstream and downstream, secondary narrower drains that crosscut this main drain are associated with places where features indicate that soil, colluvial and eluvial material was removed. This must have been used for transportation of material with relatively small amounts of water, due to the lack of abundant water resources on the hillsides, with the aid of gravity, towards channels or washing areas where Au was finally separated. The whole system was fed with water in several ways. One mechanism was the capture of water from tributaries, one of which presently discharges large amounts of water during rainy season, supplying the main drain with a great quantity of water, as well as by rain and groundwater mainly captured by narrower drains. After mining processes were finished, this main drain was used to carry water downstream in order to supply water to other mining areas, as discussed by Noronha (1960). Cidade Soberana Area Southeast of the Tanque Grande area, associated with the Lavras stream (Fig. 3; No. 9), vestiges of small dams,

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drains, abandoned meanders scars, open areas used for separating Au, drains, paved and unpaved single or parallel channels, stone walls, mining fronts and, up to metric quartz vein gravel refuse piles are distributed in an area of 9.15 ha (Fig. 9a–c). This area was marked as an old Au alluvial mine by Knecht (1950). Here Au mining works probably started in alluvial sediments from the Lavras stream, 770 m height. In the alluvial valley, which seems to have been enlarged due to mining processes, abundant scars of abandoned meanders are present, as well as deviations of the stream path, indicating active mining processes. Afterwards, mining must have proceeded towards progressively higher topographic altitudes of the hill. Near the stream, a set of graphitic metapelites was mined in the first place. In the sequence, metapelites grade into a set where metatuffs and metatuffites with lenses of metabasic rocks are predominant, which are progressively enriched in terrigenous material. In the upper part of the hillside, 800-m height, in the contact between metatuffs from the essentially volcanic Morro da Pedra Preta Formation and metapelites from the mainly metasedimentary sequence of the Jardim Fortaleza Formation, one of the Au ore horizons in the Serra do Itaberaba Group, a mining front of about 100 m length and several metres height, can be seen. The direction of a main drain present in the upper part of the hill indicates that water came from the north. Also, parallel water drains that run into the alluvial valley, covering the mined area, are present. Unpaved channels predominate (Fig. 9a–c). Remains of wider and higher water drains, up to 2.5 m in width and 1.70 m in height, are associated with a 0.90-m-long set of parallel channels where gravel refuse piles were disposed between them in 1.90-m-wide ribbons (Fig. 9a). In this site, syngenetic and epigenetic Au was afterwards concentrated due to an intense shearing process associated with a mylonitic foliation Sm E-W/70° S that also affected up to 0.80 m wide quartz veins, locally forming pseudotachylite, as well as weathering processes. Within the Imaculada Conceição Seminary, located south of the previously described set of structures, at 785 m altitude, Au mining structures are present in an area of 6.31 ha (Fig. 3; No. 10). Some of these structures are located in weathered and locally sheared graphitic metapelites from the Morro da Pedra Preta Formation, whereas other structures are present in mainly clayey silty sediments, which locally exhibit up to 4 by 2 cm pebbles of metatuff and metatuffite that can be correlated with proximal fans of the Resende Formation (e.g. Riccomini 1989). Contact of both units is by a fault with a normal component. The presence of Au in Neogene sediments denotes geological reworking processes of Au present in the volcano-sedimentary sequence of the Serra do Itaberaba Group. Channels that can measure up to 2 m wide by 1.30 m high, some of them showing the remains of preserved stone

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Fig. 9 Aspects of Au mining archaeological structures from Cidade Soberana (a–c), Imaculada Conceição Seminary (d), and Jardim Hanna (e, f) showing parallel (a) and not parallel channels (b–d) with

associated gravel refuse (a, b, d; see arrow); mining front in conglomerates covered by mudstones (e) with associated gravel refuse pile (f)

walls and marginal barriers formed by quartz vein gravel refuse piles (Fig. 9d), as well as open areas for Au separation are associated with metapelites. In Neogene sediments the man-made structures are wider and shallower, corresponding mainly to areas where Au was washed and separated. The presence of an 800 m drain following one of the hillsides in the Tanque Grande area, an area very rich in water, as well as the presence of a main drain in the upper part of the hill associated with the Cidade Soberana archaeological Au mining structures, whose direction indicates that water came from the north, corroborates the presence of a 15 km length aqueduct that came from Tanque Grande (Noronha 1960). This aqueduct followed contour curves through sinuous hillsides, carrying water that was conducted for Au mining, until reaching the neighbourhood of Imaculada Conceição Seminary. It is likely that part of this aqueduct could have been built using wood drains supported by tree trunks (Noronha 1960), in order to transpose hydrographical basins. It must have been a system of drains and dams used to mine Au in an extensive area, including

neighbourhoods of Tanque Grande reservoir and areas south of this district, because a straight line from Tanque Grande reservoir towards the Imaculada Conceição Seminar measures only 3.5 km. Jardim Hanna Area Downstream of Lavras stream, at 785 m altitude, near where it discharges into the Baquirivu-Guaçu stream, Au mining archaeological structures cover an area of 2.8 ha in Neogene sediments (Fig. 3; No. 11). Mining fronts that exhibit up to 1.5 m in height and 5.70 m in length, channels, washing areas, and quartz vein gravel refuse piles are associated with mainly conglomeratic sediments of proximal alluvial fans and, subordinately, to clayey sediments that can be assigned to the Resende Formation (e.g. Riccomini 1989) (Fig. 9e, f). In conglomerates, quartz vein pebbles and cobbles are abundant, which are distributed in a sandy-clayey groundmass, with 1 to 2 cm layers of iron-rich crusts. Here, Au ore was also formed due to geological reworking processes that

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concentrated Au from the Precambrian volcano-sedimentary sequence.

Protection of Gold Mining Archaeological Structures In the municipality of Guarulhos, described archaeological Au mining structures are found within the Gold Cycle Geopark, which covers an area of 16,900 ha. This Geopark is located in São Paulo’s metropolitan region (Fig. 10). It mainly comprises a mountainous region that partially includes the Cantareira and Mantiqueira mountains, which represent important mountain ridges from the Atlantic Plateau (Monbeig 1949) in southeastern Brazil. The process of structuring this Geopark started with Guarulhos’ Municipal Decree No. 25491 on 09 Jun 2008, by which the administration created a multidisciplinary working group with the purpose of establishing guidelines in order to create this Geopark. The public, religious, education, NGO’s, and civil society sectors were represented within this group. Developed works culminated with the creation of the Gold Cycle Geopark by Guarulhos’ Municipal Decree No. 25974 on 16 Dec 2008. The latter decree does not delimit the Geopark’s area but constitutes an important juridical tool in its implementation process. In the sequence, the Geopark’s limits were established, as well as a synthesis of geological, archaeological, geomorphological, historical, and cultural attributes for this Geopark (Pérez-Aguilar et al. 2012). Afterwards, another multidisciplinary group was established by Municipal Decree No. 28300 on 08 Dec 2010, which produced a social and

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environmental diagnosis of the area in order to recommend management procedures and implementation processes. The Geopark’s area is part of the Green Belt Biosphere Reserve of São Paulo city (RBGB; Rodrigues et al. 2006), also including several protected areas: Cantareira (covering 2,673.84 ha of its total area) and Itaberaba (covering 6,131.55 ha of its total area) State Parks and the Mananciais do Rio Paraíba do Sul Environmental Protection Area (EPA) (covering 6,097.36 ha of its total area). Totally comprised within the Geopark are the Cabuçu-Tanque Grande EPA (3,220 ha) (Andrade 2009), the Black Culture Natural Municipal Park-Candinha’s House (109.12 ha), the Tanque Grande Municipal Ecological Station (70 ha), as well as the Guarulhos State Forest (92.21 ha) and the Burle Max Biological Reserve (19.60 ha) (Secretaría do Meio Ambiente de Guarulhos 2012) (Fig. 11). The purpose of these different protected areas is to promote the preservation of the rich biodiversity of the region, protect and stabilize water supply, climate, and air quality, as well as establish land uses. However, it does not include protection of archaeological structures and only associated land uses restrictions can represent a relative guarantee for the protection of associated heritage. Within this context the purpose of the group of people working for the implantation of the Gold Cycle Geopark has been to promote, within the local authorities and population, the value of geological, archaeological, historical and cultural attributes of a delimited territory. However, in Brazil, the awareness process is slow and laborious. Neither authorities nor population have the habit of considering heritage as of great value. Most Au mining archaeological structures of the Tapera Grande and Tanque Grande areas are at the same time comprised within protected areas, which correspond to the Itaberaba State Park and Cabuçu-Tanque Grande EPA, and within private properties. Within the Tapera Grande area, a sub-area covering 508,271.37 m2, where part of the structures associated with Lavras’ stream riverhead exists, was expropriated through Guarulhos’ Municipal Decree No. 26009 from 29 Dec 2008. Nevertheless, structures occurring in the Progresso School Farm are located out of the limits of the Geopark. In one of the private lands from the Tanque Grande area, where a tunnel and other remains of structures are present, a system for visiting is being implemented. In the Nhanguçu area, archaeological remains are both present in private and municipal lands. Lastly, those structures present in the areas of Cidade Soberana, Imaculada Conceição Seminary, and Jardim Hanna are present in private properties.

Conclusions Fig. 10 Location of Gold Cycle Geopark area that corresponds to hachured area, in the metropolitan area of São Paulo

Archaeological Au mining structures related to the Brazilian colonial period are present in the municipalities of Guarulhos

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Fig. 11 Protected areas comprised by the Gold Cycle Geopark. The black dots correspond to sites with archaeological Au mining structures, corresponding 1 to 6 to Tapera Grande, 7 to Nhanguçu, 8 to Tanque Grande, 9 and 10 to Cidade Soberana, and 11 to Jardim Hanna

and Nazaré Paulista, northeast of the city of São Paulo, in southeastern Brazil. Preserved structures include dams, tanks, paved and not paved channels, water ducts, drains, Au mining fronts and benches, gravel refuse piles, stone walls, places to wash and seek Au, and remains of a water-powered iron engine. Gold was essentially mined in alluvial, colluvial, eluvial, and saprolitic material associated with rocks of the Mesoproterozoic metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary Serra do Itaberaba that outcrops in the central part of the Ribeira fold belt. However, Au also occurs in alluvial fan conglomerates and proximal alluvial fan clast-rich mudstones of the Neogene Resende Formation that makes part of the Taubaté Group. The discovery of archaeological Au mining structures contributes to a deeper understanding of an earlier and first Au mining cycle of the Brazilian colonial period, which is generally ignored by historians. This cycle was not as significant as the Au cycle that covers the years from 1690 to 1750, with the discovery of Au mines in the current states of Minas Gerais, Goiás and Mato Grosso, due to lower mine richness of southern Brazil. However, associated mining activities constitute an important landmark in the colonization process of Brazil. It can be considered that from this landmark, the fate and future of this nation started to be projected. These archaeological Au mining structures promotes São Paulo State mining heritage, either nationally and internationally. At that time, Au exploitation techniques were imported from Europe, which later spread to the interior of Brazil. Future archaeological and historical studies may allow better understanding not only of the timing of the mining developments, but also urban and cultural processes

associated with the exploitation of the first Au mines during the Brazilian colonial period. Activities certainly were associated with decimation of indigenous people together with most of its cultural heritage, but also with the installation of new cultural and social practices. Archaeological Au mining structures that outcrop in areas of several square kilometres must be recovered, protected, preserved, and disclosed due to their great archaeological, geological, cultural, and historical value. However, as most Au mining archaeological structures are located within private lands, the process of raising awareness amongst authorities, landowners, and local population of the value of heritage represented by archaeological remains is critical, in order to carry out negotiations with the landowners and guarantee the establishment of appropriate public policies leading to these purposes. Resources and mechanisms that can make possible the recovery of mining structures, as well as promote the construction of visiting frameworks in the sites where they are present must be sought. Structure remains require careful recuperation processes because vegetation presently covers much of them. These structures will certainly come to be valued and disclosed in the context of the Gold Cycle Geopark of Guarulhos, and they are, somehow, the justification of the intervention effort for the preservation of this historical ensemble. Within the scope of this Geopark a set of performed actions must be articulated in order to use heritage to promote the sustainable development of the local communities who live there. A GIS database and map of all these structures should be created. Also, further work must be carried out in order to

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find the remains of preserved Au mining archaeological structures in the neighbourhood of already known structures, taking into account favourable geological conditions, in order to restore these structures and better reconstruct mined areas. This would greatly aid our understanding associated with Au ore processes within the Mesoproterozoic Serra do Itaberaba Group and Neogene sediments of the Resend Formation, as well as recover and preserve the Brazilian mining heritage. Acknowledgments Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) processes 1993/4350-0, 1995/2337-2, 1998/ 15170-7, and 2007/00405-0; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) process 400490-94-3; and Instituto Geológico/SMA, process SMA 5977/2009. The authors are also grateful to reviewers whose suggestions significantly improved this work.

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