Auguste Comte
Descrição do Produto
Mental Evolution
Social Evolution
Comtean Stages
Theological
Metaphysical
Average Ego-developmental Stage of Civilization
Impulsive/Self-protective
Conformist
Positive
Conscientious/Individualist
Post-positivistic
Autonomous/Integrative
Social Structure
Simple tribes
Sectarian and dogmatic systems
Competitive Capitalism and Individualism
Egalitarianism (still being researched)
Stage of Ego Development
Impulsive
Self-Protective
Interpersonal Mode
Egocentric/dependent
Manipulative, wary
Conformist
Cooperative, loyal, helpful
Conscientious
Self-aware, Intense, competitive
Autonomous
Integrated
Individualist
Responsible, Mutual, Sensitive
Interdependent
Cherishing Individuality and Existence
Conscious Pre-occupation
Bodily Feelings
"Trouble" control
Appearances, behavior
Feelings, problems, adjustments
Motives, traits, achievements
Self-fulfillment
Identity and being
Social Structure
Simple tribes
Militarised systems
Aristocracies, Sectarian systems
Taylorism, Industrialism
Capitalism, Achievement-oriented cultures
More egalitarian structures
Unknown, still being researched
Human Thought
Attributes volition to all nature in an animistic fashion.
Ascribes an occult 'force' or 'presence' to objects.
Social Stage
Theological
Metaphysical
Fetishistic, polytheistic, and monotheistic beliefs and superstitutions
Adherence to sacred norms or codes
Lifestyle
Derive abstract principles through positivistic inquiry
Positive
Uses rationalistic and scientific methods to maximise industry
Means of Control
Military
Clergies, Priests, Bishops
Scientists
Theological Stage
Theological Stage: The human mind attributes causation to the effects of supernatural agents.
I.e.: All reality is the product of Aristotlean final causes.
Illustration: Disasters are created by the wrath of a single God.
Paralleled a military and monarchical social organisation. God is the head of the system. Highly dogmatic and religious. Usurpers or disbelievers are severely punished.
The positive method in sociology
Observation involves noticing general patterns and directions
Experimentation involves the actual empirical testing to prove social hypotheses.
Comparison involves the contrast between phylogenetic analogies.
Historical Analysis is like a 'cross-sectional' study of several concomitantly existing societies at different stages of 'development' on earth to derive over-arching evolutionary stages
"If it is true that every theory must be based upon observed facts, it is equally true that facts cannot be observed without the guidance of some theory" (Comte, 1830, p. 4).
Comtean Positivism
Scientific Methodology
Positivism and SOCIETAL REFORMS
Education: Proponent of a wide-spread general education. "Such a mode of proceeding would, therefore, be chimerical as regards general education, and yet an essential requirement of latter is a complete body of positive conceptions on all the great classes of natural phenomena."
Politics: The necessity of Applied Sociology: " … the science of society [Sociology], besides being more important than any other, supplies the only logical and scientific link by which all our varied observations of phenomena can be brought into one consistent whole"
Functionalism and organicism
Organicism: Sociology is the extension of biology to study social organization.
"The main cause of the superiority of the social to the individual organism is according to an established law" (Comte, 2:289)
Functionalism: Society is an "organic whole" whose component organs are interrelated and interdependent.
"… the more marked is the specialization of the various functions fulfilled by organs more and more distinct, but interconnected … (Comte, Positive Philosophy, 2:289).
Divided Sociology into (1) social statics and (2) social dynamics.
Law of the three stages
Mental evolution as a necessary condition for social evolution: "The constitution of the new system cannot take place before the destruction of the old … and before the potentialities of the old mental order have been exhausted.
Mental evolution paralleled socio-cultural development: "The highest order of minds cannot discern the characterizations of the coming period till they are close upon it."
The need for positivism
Reasoning fallacy of theological and metaphysical thinking:
Without appropriate observation and empiricism, pseudo-sciences like alchemy and astrology proffer no actual explanatory and predictive power.
Encourages anthropocentrism, where mankind's significance is exaggerated (e.g. Being in a geo-centric universe).
"No real observation of any phenomena is possible, except in so far as it is first directed, and finally interpreted, by some theory" (Comte, 1830, p. 243).
Comte's purpose of the hierarchy of sciences
Comte's purpose was to circumvent a fragmentation of the sciences.
To found Sociology as a final frontier of human knowledge.
"No social fact can have any scientific meaning till it is connected with some other social facts" (II, p. 245).
Social physics and the hierarchy of science
In 'Courses', Comte establishes the hierarchy of the classification of the natural sciences.
Mathematics is the basis of all the sciences due to its generality.
Sociology (Social physics) is at the top owing to its complexity.
"The consideration of the medium was once everything; but here the consideration of the organism rises more and more through the long series of vital systems of growing complexity." (VIII, 333)
The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830 – 1842)
Compiled by harriet martineau into "the positive philosophy of auguste comte"
Auguste Comte's Background
Was secretary to Claude Henry Saint Simon – influenced his political involvement.
Close friends with John Stuart Mill – influenced his positivistic methodology
The Course on Positive Philosophy (1830-1842) [Core work]
Discourse on the Positive Spirit (1844)
A General View of Positivism (1848)
Religion of Humanity (1856)
Introduction to Comte's Positive Philosophy (by Goh Yi Xiang)
Dualism in Comtean Social Theory
The religion of humanity: POSITIVISM
Defines religion as 'the state of complete harmony peculiar to human life […] when all the parts of Life are ordered in their natural relations to each other' (1851, v. 2, 8; E.,v. 2, 8).
2 Functions of Religion: (1) Moral function, religion should govern each individual. (2) Political function, it should unite all individuals.
In the positivist stage, humanity becomes the subject of worship to which love is the fundamental basis of society.
The final, positivistic science recapitulates all others; knowledge, involving the encyclopaedic classification of all subjects becomes the new "religion".
References
Bourdeau, M. (2008, October 1). Auguste Comte. Stanford University. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#ClaSciSci
Bourdeau, M. (2008, October 1). Auguste Comte. Stanford University. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#CouPosFriMil
Comte. (n.d.). Humanistic Texts. Retrieved August 22, 2014, from http://www.humanistictexts.org/comte.htm#The Move Towards Laws
Comte. (n.d.). Comte. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/DeadSoc/Comte/comte.htm
Comte, A. (1868). The positive philosophy of Auguste Comte. W. Gowans.
Cook-Greuter, S. (2005). Ego development: Nine levels of increasing embrace.Unpublished manuscript.
Martineau, H. (n.d.). Comte's Positive Philosophy. Comte's Positive Philosophy. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so11/frameworks/fpintro.html
Mill, J. S. (n.d.). AUGUSTE COMTE AND POSITIVISM. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Auguste Comte And Positivism, by John Stuart Mill.. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16833/16833-h/16833-h.htm
Advancing Comte's Socio-theoretical Framework
Ego Development: Nine Levels of Increasing Embrace (Susanne Cook-Greuter)
Cook-Greuter's Stages
Positive stage
Positive stage: Search for general principles and invariances in the universe through empirically-derived methodologies and reasoned logical stage (Formal Causes)
E.g. The statement that a Durian falls on Newton's head and kills them is due to the law of gravitation and not due to my imagination. (Really?)
Scientific and industrial society. Scientists are the "new priests". Positive philosophy becomes the new 'religion'.
Metaphysical stage
Metaphysical Stage: Supernatural agents of causation are no longer pantheistic presences, but individualised, abstract, and concrete entities.
Illustration: individual animistic presences like nature nymphs Neieds (seas), Dryads (trees), Oeieds (mountains) etc. are responsible for their own domains of nature.
Priesthood and religion thrives. Power of the king is restricted. Decentralisation of power towards constitutional governance. Highly legalistic. Medieval and feudal. Natural rights are substituted for divine rights. Structured and formal.
Ego Development: 7 Levels of Increasing Embrace
Posits that there are 7 different stages of Ego development where the ego enters phases of alternating integration and differentiation of one's identity.
At the lower stages, the self (Ego) is highly undifferentiated, and tends towards defensive self-egoism.
Generally, as one proceeds along the higher stages, one begins to reach a balance between autonomy and homonomy, and the greater is one's regard towards others.
Most people stagnate at stage 3 or 4 in modern times, while in ancient times, people might stagnate at stages 1 or 2, leading to corresponding social structures.
Similarly, Comte theorizes a social dynamic between egoism and altruism in all stages of social development.
Limitations of Comtean thought
Distortion of views towards women due to negative personal experiences
Practiced "cerebral hygiene" and did not read his contemporaries' works
Practiced "armchair philosophy" – provided no empirical support
Functionalism and organicism results in the fallacy of abductive reasoning
G. Ritzer and D.J. Goodman, Sociological Theory, McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Washington Sentence Completion Test
Form for Females
1. For a woman a career is
2. A girl has a right to
3. The thing I like about
myself is
4. Education
5. A wife should
6. Rules are
7. When I get mad
8. Men are lucky because
9. I am
10. A woman feels good when
11. My husband and I will
12. A woman should always
Form for males
1. If I had more money
2. A man's job
3. The thing I like about
myself is
4. Women are lucky because
5. A good father
6. A man feels good when
7. A wife should
8. A man should always
9. Rules are
10. When his wife asked him to
help with the housework
11. When I am criticized
12. He felt proud that he .
Relation to Comtean Stages
Research Question
Research Hypothesis: It is expected that countries or locations skewed towards a greater proportion of individuals at the higher stages should have higher levels of civic commitment, communal volunteerism, and a lower crime rate, as the higher regard towards altruism and homonomy supersedes the anti-social and egoistic tendencies within man, which should correspond to social systems of greater egalitarianism and democratic participation.
Dependent Variable: Human transpersonal development is measurable via Loevinger's Washington University Sentence Completion Test.
Independent Variable: People operating at higher stages of development should score higher on Ruston et al.'s (1981) Altruistic Personality and Self-Report Altruism Scale.
Mirroring Comte's dualism between mental and societal evolution, the works of transpersonal psychologists, Robert Kegan, Susanne Cook-Greuter, and Graves expand upon Comte's works, and hypothesize future societal stages corresponding to higher levels of transpersonal human development. Susanne Cook-Greuter's transpersonal developmental model postulates that the ego initially starts off as an undifferentiated psychical mass concerned only for safety and security (the 'Impulsive' stage), and as one progresses towards the higher stages, the human mind begins to reach a balance between autonomy (egoistic individualism) and homonomy (altruistic collectivism). There are 7 stages in Cook-Greuter's paradigm: the impulsive, self-protective, conformist, conscientious, individualistic, autonomous, and integrated stages, where each successive stage involves a more harmonious balance between Comtean egoism and altruism, such that at the highest stages, people perceive increasing integration and unity of all ideologies, philosophies, religions, and systems, and are fundamentally more internalised in terms of its altruistic disposition. Correspondingly, the higher stages are paralleled by more egalitarian and humanistic social systems, while the lower stages are characterised by competition, coercion, and Machiavellianism.
17
1-24 Adapted from The Fundamental Principles of the Positive Philosophy, by Auguste Comte, translated by Paul Descours and H. Gordon Jones. Watts & Co, London, 1905.
3 In the Theological state, the human mind directs its researches mainly towards the inner nature of beings, and towards the first and final causes of all the phenomena which it observes—in a word, towards absolute knowledge. It therefore represents these phenomena as being produced by the direct and continuous action of more or less numerous supernatural agents, whose arbitrary intervention explains all the apparent anomalies of the universe.
In the Metaphysical state, which is in reality only a simple general modification of the first state, the supernatural agents are replaced by abstract forces, real entities or personified abstractions, inherent in the different beings of the world. These entities are looked upon as capable of giving rise by themselves to all the phenomena observed, each phenomenon being explained by assigning it to its corresponding entity.
Finally, in the positive state, the human mind, recognizing the impossibility of obtaining absolute truth, gives up the search after the origin and destination of the universe and a knowledge of the final causes of phenomena. It only endeavors now to discover, by a well-combined use of reasoning and observation, the actual laws of phenomena—that is to say, their invariable relations of succession and likeness. The explanation of facts, thus reduced to its real terms, consists henceforth only in the connection established between different particular phenomena and some general facts, the number of which the progress of science tends more and more to diminish.
4 The theological system arrived at its highest form of perfection, when it substituted the providential action of a single being for the varied play of the numerous independent gods that had been imagined by the primitive mind. In the same way, the last stage of the metaphysical system consisted in replacing the different special entities by the idea of a single great general entity—nature, looked upon as the sole source of all phenomena. Similarly, the ideal of the positive system, towards which it constantly tends, although in all probability it will never attain such a stage, would be reached if we could look upon all the different phenomena observable as so many particular cases of a single general fact, such as that of gravitation, for example.
5 In the first place, it is, I think, sufficient merely to enumerate such a law for its accuracy to be immediately verified, by all those who are fairly well acquainted with the general history of the sciences. For there is not a single science that has today reached the positive stage which was not in the past—as each can easily see for himself—composed mainly of metaphysical abstractions. And, going back further still, it was altogether under the sway of theological conception
13
G. Ritzer and D.J. Goodman, Sociological Theory, McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Imposed theory unto facts
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Construct Validity of the
Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development
Jane Loevinger
Washington University
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Theological Stage sub-stages
Fetishism Sub-stage: Belief in souls and gods. Each physical entity is believed to be a corporeal embodiment of a spirit of God dwelling within.
Polytheism Sub-stage: Too many fetishism resulted in confusion, thus beliefs in Gods fragmented into a plurality of Gods.
Monotheism Sub-stage: Fusion of many gods into the belief in one God.
Mill, J. S. (n.d.). Auguste Comte and Positivism. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Auguste Comte And Positivism, by John Stuart Mill.. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16833/16833-h/16833-h.htm
Bourdeau, M. (2008, October 1). Auguste Comte. Stanford University. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/
http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so11/frameworks/fpintro.html
http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/DeadSoc/Comte/Comte%20-%20The%20Work%20-%20Law%20of%20Human%20Progress.htm
http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/DeadSoc/Comte/comte.htm
http://www.humanistictexts.org/comte.htm#The Move Towards Laws
The Fundamental Principles of the Positive Philosophy, by Auguste Comte, translated by Paul Descours and H. Gordon Jones. Watts & Co, London, 1905.
23
Source: Loevinger's Measure of Ego Development: Reliability and
National Norms for Male and Female Short Forms
Robert R. Holt
New York University
22
Technical Foundations for Measuring Ego Development (Le Xuan and Jane Joevinger)
http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezlibproxy1.ntu.edu.sg/(S(u0cxgcxozod22lkcdwxkprup))/Reader.aspx#
BF698.8.S35T43 1998
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http://www.experienceintegral.org/uploads/media/D_3_Barrett_-_An_Overview_of_Developmental_Stages_of_Consciousness_11p.pdf
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http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16833/16833-h/16833-h.htm (John Stuart Mill)
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#CouPosFriMil
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#ClaSciSci
http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so11/frameworks/fpintro.html
http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/DeadSoc/Comte/comte.htm
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http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#CouPosFriMil
(PHALANSTERIES)
Other works: 'Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry' (1843), 'The Philosophical Treatise on Popular Astronomy' (1844), 'The Discourse on Positive Spirit' (1844), and 'The General View of Positivism' (1848).
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1-24 Adapted from The Fundamental Principles of the Positive Philosophy, by Auguste Comte, translated by Paul Descours and H. Gordon Jones. Watts & Co, London, 1905.
mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology.
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http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/DeadSoc/Comte/Comte%20-%20The%20Work%20-%20Law%20of%20Human%20Progress.htm
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Auguste Comte's theory of socio-ecological evolution is based on the premise that societal changes are paralleled by corresponding advancements in human thought complexity (dualism).
when primitive men first discerned cause-and-effect by attributing volition to all nature in an animistic fashion during the theological stage, the simplicity of human thought corresponded to the dominance of social habits comprising superstitious fetishistic, polytheistic, and monotheistic beliefs and worships, which necessitated a military structure instead of rationality to uphold such ideals, as humanity has not yet developed the complexity for rationalistic methods.
As human thought gained sophistication, whereby individual entities instead of nature as a whole, are ascribed an innate and occult 'force' or 'presence', military force is abandoned in favor of the preponderance of clerics, lawyers, and bishops to uphold metaphysical ideals using norms and religion.
Finally, when human reasoning develops to the positive stage, where people extract abstract principles and invariances derived from positivistic inquiry via the three stages of observation, experimentation, and historical comparison, the human mind has developed sufficiently with the technical complexity required for industry and scientific Taylorism. Hence, each successive societal stage thus demands a corresponding increase in complexity in human psychology and thought.
In a vein similar to Emile Durkheim, Comte also suggests that all society consists of a social dynamic involving the contention between human egoism and altruism, whereby the latter will predominate the more advanced societal stages.
12
"there can be no scientific study of society, either in its conditions or its movements, if it is separated into portions and its divisions are studied apart". (Comte, Positive Philosophy)
Divided Sociology into (1) social statics (social order) and (2) social dynamics (social progress and change).
10
http://www.humanistictexts.org/comte.htm#The Mental Revolution
1-24 Adapted from The Fundamental Principles of the Positive Philosophy, by Auguste Comte, translated by Paul Descours and H. Gordon Jones. Watts & Co, London, 1905.
"No social fact can have any scientific meaning till it is connected with some other social facts" (II, p. 245).
"If it is true that every theory must be based upon observed facts, it is equally true that facts cannot be observed without the guidance of some theory" (Comte, 1830, p. 4).
"No real observation of any phenomena is possible, except in so far as it is first directed, and finally interpreted, by some theory" (Comte, 1830, p. 243).
6
http://www.humanistictexts.org/comte.htm#The Move Towards Laws
1-24 Adapted from The Fundamental Principles of the Positive Philosophy, by Auguste Comte, translated by Paul Descours and H. Gordon Jones. Watts & Co, London, 1905.
"No social fact can have any scientific meaning till it is connected with some other social facts" (II, p. 245).
7
i.e., Comte maintains that a chemist cannot understand chemistry without its precedents of physics and mathematics, and a Sociologist cannot understand Sociology without ALL prior subjects!
5
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#CouPosFriMil
New Priests of society = Scientists
9
Criticised the various European governments of instituting specialization over generalization. An intelligent person must know every field sufficiently due to the unity of the sciences.
EDUCATION:
Competent judges are already unanimous in recognizing the necessity of replacing our European education, which is still essentially theological, metaphysical, and literary, by a positive education in accordance with the spirit of our time and adapted to the needs of modern civilization. Various attempts have been made in increasing number during the last hundred years, and especially during recent years, to spread and augment, without ceasing, instruction of a positive kind. Such attempts, which the different European Governments have always eagerly encouraged and often initiated, are a sufficient testimony that the spontaneous feeling of this necessity is everywhere growing. But, while supporting these useful enterprises as much as possible, we must not conceal the fact that, in the present state of our ideas, they are not at all capable of attaining their principal object—namely, the fundamental regeneration of general education. The exclusive specialization, the too rigid isolation, which still characterizes our way of conceiving and of cultivating the sciences has necessarily a marked influence upon the mode of teaching them.
An intelligent person who wishes at the present day to study the principal branches of natural philosophy, in order to acquire a general system of positive ideas, is obliged to study each separate science in the same way, and with the same amount of detail, as if he wished to become an astronomical or chemical specialist, etc. This renders such an education almost impossible and necessarily very imperfect, even in the case of the most intelligent minds, placed in the most favorable circumstances. Such a mode of proceeding would, therefore, be chimerical as regards general education, and yet an essential requirement of latter is a complete body of positive conceptions on all the great classes of natural phenomena. It is such a survey, on a more or less extended scale, which must henceforth constitute, even among the mass of the people, the permanent basis of all human education; it must, in short, constitute the mental framework of our descendants.
POLITICS:
Positivism consists essentially of a philosophy and a political theory. These can never be dissevered; the former being the basis, and the latter the end of one comprehensive system, in which our intellectual faculties and our social sympathies are brought into close correlation with each other. For, in the first place, the science of society, besides being more important than any other, supplies the only logical and scientific link by which all our varied observations of phenomena can be brought into one consistent whole. . . Now here we find a coincidence which is assuredly not fortuitous. At the very time when the theory of society is being laid down, an immense sphere is opened for the application of that theory; the direction, namely, of the social regeneration of Western Europe. For, if we take another point of view, and look at the great crisis of modern history, as its character is displayed in the natural course of events, it becomes every day more evident how hopeless is the task of reconstructing political institutions without the previous remodeling of opinion and of life. To form then a satisfactory synthesis of all human conceptions is the most urgent of our social wants: and it is needed equally for the sake of order and of progress.
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Mental Evolution
Social Evolution
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Human Thought
Attributes volition to all nature in an animistic fashion.
Ascribes an occult 'force' or 'presence' to objects.
Derive abstract principles through positivistic inquiry
Social Stage
Theological
Metaphysical
Positive
Lifestyle
Fetishistic, polytheistic, and monotheistic beliefs and superstitutions
Adherence to sacred norms or codes
Uses rationalistic and scientific methods to maximise industry
Means of Control
Military
Clergies, Priests, Bishops
Scientists
Stage of Ego Development
Impulsive
Self-Protective
Conformist
Individualist
Conscientious
Autonomous
Integrated
Interpersonal Mode
Egocentric/dependent
Manipulative, wary
Cooperative, loyal, helpful
Self-aware, Intense, competitive
Responsible, Mutual, Sensitive
Interdependent
Cherishing Individuality and Existence
Conscious Pre-occupation
Bodily Feelings
"Trouble" control
Appearances, behavior
Feelings, problems, adjustments
Motives, traits, achievements
Self-fulfillment
Identity and being
Social Structure
Simple tribes
Militarised systems
Aristocracies, Sectarian systems
Taylorism, Industrialism
Capitalism, Achievement-oriented cultures
More egalitarian structures
Unknown, still being researched
Comtean Stages
Theological
Metaphysical
Positive
Post-positivistic
Average Ego-developmental Stage of Civilization
Impulsive/Self-protective
Conformist
Conscientious/Individualist
Autonomous/Integrative
Social Structure
Simple tribes
Sectarian and dogmatic systems
Competitive Capitalism and Individualism
Egalitarianism (still being researched)
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