CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
Career guidance and counselling in the western world, most notably in the United States (USA), has developed a comprehensive system of theories and intervention strategies in its more than 100 years of history. It began in the years of Frank Parson as a trait-factor approach in the early twentieth century, and slowly evolved to become a rather mature discipline today in the twenty-first century with a strong theoretical and empirical base, with the potential to further develop into a more "global" discipline in the years ahead. Indeed, vocational and career related issues are salient across different cultures and nationalities. In an age of economic globalisation, all individuals are affected by an array of work related concerns, some of these concerns are unique to certain cultures, but others are common to many cultural groups. The search for life purposes and meanings, the journey to actualise oneself through various life and work-related roles, and the efforts by nations to deal with problems of employment and unemployment, are examples of universal issues that seem to affect many individuals from diverse cultures. Under the theme of career development, there are experiences, concerns, and issues that we could share, explore, and discussed at a global stage. The development of career guidance and development into a global discipline requires a set of theoretical frameworks with universal validity and applications, as well as culture-specific models that could be used to explain career development issues and phenomenon at a local level. We focus more on career development is a concept that have guided career guidance and counselling practice and research in the past few decades in the USA as well as internationally. These are the five theories researchers managed to get (a) Theory of Work-Adjustment, (b) Holland's Theory of Vocational Personalities in Work Environment, (c) the Self-concept Theory of Career Development formulated by Super and more recently by Savickas, (d) Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription and Compromise, and (e) Social Cognitive Career Theory.
1a) theory of work adjustment
Workers are mainly encouraged to report any unfair discrimination they encounter from their employees. The work environment of employees should be comfortable and free to work at. Chairs that employees are given should allow them to stretch their hands and legs, free space to move around and do your work without any destruction. Tables must be given to them. Hire cleaners and train employees.
B) Holland's Theory of Vocational Personalities in Work Environment
In the past few decades, the theory by Holland has guided career interest assessment both in the USA and internationally. The theory by Holland offers a simple and easy-to-understand typology framework on career interest and environments that could be used in career counselling and guidance. Holland postulated that vocational interest is an expression of one's personality, and that vocational interests could be conceptualised into six typologies, which are Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C). If a person's degree of resemblance to the six vocational personality and interest types could be assessed, then it is possible to generate a three-letter code (e.g., SIA, RIA) to denote and summarise one's career interest. The first letter of the code is a person's primary interest type, which would likely play a major role in career choice and satisfaction. The second and third letters are secondary interest themes, and they would likely play a lesser but still significant role in the career choice process. Parallel to the classification of vocational interest types, Holland postulated that vocational environments could be arranged into similar typologies. In the career choice and development process, people search for environments that would allow them to exercise their skills and abilities, and to express their attitudes and values. In any given vocational environment, there is a tendency to shape its composition so that its characteristics are like the dominant persons in there, and those who are dissimilar to the dominant types are likely to feel unfulfilled and dissatisfied. The concept of "congruence" is used by Holland to denote the status of person-environment interaction. A high degree of match between a person's personality and interest types and the dominant work environmental types (that is, high degree of congruence) is likely to result in vocational satisfaction and stability, and a low degree of match (that is, low congruence) is likely to result in vocational dissatisfaction and instability.
2. Career development
Career development is a significant part of human development, is the process that forms a person's work identity. It spans over his or her entire lifetime, beginning when the individual first becomes aware of how people make a living. For example, when a child notices that some people are doctors, others are fire-fighters and some are carpenters, it signals the start of this process. It continues as that person begins to explore occupations and ultimately decides what career to pursue him or herself.
Career development doesn't end there. After you choose a profession, you must then get the required education, apply for and find employment, and ultimately advance in your career. For most people, it will also include changing careers and jobs at least once during their work lives, but probably more often than that.
It is important to note that, for most individuals, career development occurs without any intervention from other people. There also isn't a set age for when it will begin some people will start to think about occupational choices very early in life, while others won't give this subject much thought until they are relatively close to having to decide how they will earn money.
While many individuals go through this process independently, almost everyone can benefit greatly from getting expert career guidance. Getting help from a career counsellor or other similarly trained specialists, or taking a class in school that helps with career development, allows you forget a more complicated career.
This type of intervention can begin as early as elementary school, and it should continue throughout adulthood. Many people find themselves in need of professional advice as they encounter problems or must make decisions about their careers, for instance when they are thinking of looking for a new job or changing occupations.
Differentiation of career development between men and women
It has been established long ago that men and women are psychologically very different. They want different things, they have different needs and they tend to perceive the same things differently.
Pattern of career progress of male and female staff: Even though the number of female staff has been growing substantially over the years, progress can still be made. There is no equal gender balance and progress in terms of equal representation of men and women has been rather slow in light of developments during the last 30 years. The initiatives taken by the Commission in the last ten years improved the situation, in particular among senior management. However, the representation of male and female officials in the various AD grades is unequal. There are fewer women in almost all grades (except AD5 and AD7) and their under-representation becomes more apparent the higher the grade of the Administrators. Especially the pool of female candidates who are in the right grade (AD13-AD14) to apply for a senior management position is limited. Men and women follow similar - career - paths in the Commission with gradual advancement to higher grades. The only evident differences occur in the higher grades. Women tend to stay longer in these grades than their male colleagues. They also have sometimes more years of service within the Commission as compared to their male colleagues before being promoted to higher grades. On average, a higher percentage of female officials are promoted each year than male officials. However, a lower percentage of women were promoted to management positions throughout the past four years as compared to the percentage of their male colleagues. Evaluation of potential gender bias in AD grades – Appraisal and promotion system: The appraisal and promotion systems as such cannot account for the gender inequality. In fact, there was no evidence that the mechanism of allocation of merit points and priority points put female officials into a disadvantaged position. On the contrary, in some years more merit and priority points were allocated to female than to male officials in the majority of grades. Evaluation of potential gender bias in AD grades – Recruitment and appointment: The number of female officials being recruited and appointed at management levels is steadily growing. There was a substantial improvement in 2005 with the EU-10 appointments. Although the number declined slightly in 2006, the figures still indicate a positive trend. However, over the years the gender targets have not been met and application rates remain very low. At non-management level, the recruitment trend was more negative and slowly declined from 2004 to 2006 due to the decline in the success rate of females at competitions in 2004 and 2005. No evidence has been found to indicate the existence of intrinsic gender bias in the internal selection procedures for middle and senior managers. However, there are indications of a "glass ceiling" for women in management positions because of their own perception of their career possibilities in the Commission. Women at all levels are very negative about their chances of rising rapidly to higher ranks in the Commission's hierarchy and they "believe" it is because of cultural resistance on the Commission's part to female managers. Whatever the case may be, it can be concluded that the perceived existence of gender bias/cultural resistance discourages women from applying for higher positions and this in turn creates a "glass ceiling" for female officials. It could be seen that recruitment at non-management level through external competitions influences the pool of eligible female candidates for positions at middle management level. An earlier study by DG Admin and Epso showed that in all competitions the chances of success for women and men differ at the pre-selection process. Every competition analysed in that study showed that women fell off throughout the selection procedure, especially in the fields with more technical emphasis. Some important recommendations from that study are being implemented and they should improve the results of the external selection and recruitment procedures. This is important because without a sufficient inflow of female officials at lower grades the pool of eligible female candidates for management posts at higher levels will remain restricted. Investigation of the reasons for the lack of applications from female staff for management positions: Perceptions of Career development policy and Gender equality policy: Women and men share similar opinions about the career management policy in the Commission and the various aspects of it. At non-management level there is a difference between the views of the genders; men are less satisfied with the training possibilities provided and women with the coaching and mentoring possibilities. Nevertheless, there is no great difference between men and women in their appreciation of career policy. Both are mainly negative, so that alone cannot account for the modest rate of female applications for management positions, the two genders have very different opinions about the Commission's efforts and the results of those efforts in terms of the perspectives of the genders. Females tend to be more negative about their career opportunities in the Commission and feel that men can rise higher and faster than they can in the hierarchy. Men, on the contrary, think that women can rise higher and faster due to positive discrimination, even though evidence suggests that in the period from 2003 to 2006, the promotion speed for men in high AD categories was faster as compared to women. A very high percentage of women (almost half at non-management level and even more at middle and senior levels) have experienced gender-related obstacles at some point in their career. Most of the hurdles they experienced seem to be related to the combination of private and professional life and to prejudices/gender stereotypes. Investigation of the reasons for the lack of applications from female staff for management positions: Ambition level and Intention to apply. There are no differences between male and female non-management officials in terms of ambition to become a middle manager. However, this ambition does not translate into the intention to apply or the actual application itself for such a position. Women seem to be less inclined to apply for middle-management functions. This is evidenced by their lower application rates in the past as compared to male officials. Women also have a longer time-scale before they eventually apply for management positions.

In determining one's career path, even on the professional front, women need a set of skills, somewhat different from their male counterparts, in order to succeed in their career.
Leadership skill
For career development of women, this is the most important trait to guarantee success and growth in a career. From time immemorial, women have been dominated by men in every aspect of their lives.
Even if we shot ourselves hoarse about women's equality and liberalization, in reality, these concepts are applied only in few parts of the world, and that too, among few people.
As a working woman you need to start cultivating your own leadership qualities and demonstrating them, even if it's in a small way, to make your colleagues take you seriously. Then, your opinions would start to matter more at crucial juncture's of your career.
Developing leadership skills would also ensure and better opportunities at the workplace, but it means you must also be prepared to take on bigger responsibilities.
A positive attitude
This is a quality that acts as a woman's guide through every challenge that she would have to face during the span of her career. Having a positive frame of mind boosts one's self confidence and instils the strength to face unfavourable situations, biases and discrimination.
A woman with a positive outlook is more likely to take things in her stride and sail through the situation with poise and grace instead of letting her self-esteem take a blow.
While some people are optimistic by nature, a positive attitude is a trait can be cultivated with time and practice. It is also one of the most important skills taught in any program that focuses on career development for women.
Be a learner
No matter how many degrees we earn, as far as life's experiences are concerned, we forever remain students. There are certain things that any woman in a professional field would have to face, and most of these are not taught in business schools.
There might be some setbacks in a woman's career path, some phases when things just refuse to look up. Instead of crying over it, quickly analyse what went wrong and why. Then learn not to repeat them in similar situations in future. Be open to new ideas and changing trends as adaptability can take you a long way in your professional success.
Promote yourself
Marketing yourself well acts as a catalyst in career development for women. Men usually do not have hang ups in taking credit for their positive contribution to the company. Women, however, are brought up to be modest and often feel hesitant to take credit for their contributions to the organization.
Whatever the reason for this may be, you need to overcome your fears and limitations and start promoting yourself strategically, especially with the use of facts and figures that support your achievements. Honesty and hard work need to be adequately supplemented with business acumen in order to climb the ladder to success.
A good business ethics
Punctuality, the right body language, keen observation and listening abilities are some of the ground rules of thriving in the corporate world. They come in handy during business trips or boardroom meetings, as well as for socializing and networking. Seemingly minor things like a firm handshake can make or break a woman's impression in front of other people.
Make it a point to learn good business etiquette, especially when socializing with people from other cultures and nations. Those women, who invest in their own personal development and learn to present themselves well in front of others, are the ones who are given preference at promotion time. The bottom line is that career development goes hand in hand with personal and self-development. As you grow in experience and wisdom, so will your career.
3. Career anchor can be defined as the pattern of work skills, abilities and interests that a person develops early in a career that becomes the base for further careers or advancement.
Types of career anchors
Edgar Schein, in his exploration of career dynamics, identified five different 'anchors' that are often fundamental drivers in the way they are often key drivers in our choices of jobs and careers.
People usually have only one primary anchor, but can have other anchors in close support. Anchors are relatively stable, although life events can make people re-evaluate their purpose and hence change primary anchors.
Security and stability
Many people find it important that their jobs offer a degree of security and stability in their lives. This is natural and plays to basic needs for safety.
For others, it is of central importance and they will often avoid jobs that offer promotion and more money but which also are less stable and include greater risk of losing the job, for example in an unstable industry or perhaps where 'insufficient performance' is likely to lead to the person being sacked.
For such people risk aversion is likely to be significant and the idea of a quiet life may well be more attractive than excitement and interest of the new. Money represents safety and they are likely to save it carefully. Just having a nest-egg makes them feel good.
People may fall into this category when they want the organization to take responsibility for their life, acting perhaps as surrogate parents. They are thus happy in an institutionalized cocoon.
Another route into this state is where the person has anchors outside of work, in family, friends and community. Work in this case is less a place for meaning-making and more a place for earning money to sustain a stable local life.
Autonomy and independence
Some people find that being at somebody else's beck and call a fundamentally grating experience. They hate being told what to do, and particularly in any form of directive micro-management. They find any form of rules to be constricting and will rail and rebel against any attempt to control their lives.
Money is valued in the ability it gives the person to do their own thing. They may dream of wealth that enables them to indulge in whatever they choose, free from the necessities of normal working life.
One way they find independence in the workplace is by becoming an expert in their field, often through long study for professional qualification. They are driven in the effort required for this learning by the golden thought of ultimate autonomy.
They may also seek jobs that have a natural freedom and authority, such as teaching or consulting. Management often holds an allure for them as they see themselves being the controllers, and not the controlled (though in practice, they may find this is not quite the case).
Creativity and entrepreneur
Some people are driven by the need to create and find great satisfaction in designing and constructing things that may range from products to whole businesses.
The entrepreneur is an arch-builder, creating and developing organizations that fulfil their dreams. They are not like 'ordinary' people in that they have the courage and commitment to put their whole lives into their work, rather than it being just a 'job'.
Money is both a necessary evil and a measure of success. They will do what it takes to get the finance, including mortgaging their house and maxing out their credit card -- anything to get their business idea going and make it successful. When they look at their business, the revenues gained will both indicate the degree of their success and also make them wonder what they can build next.
Such people either stay in traditional businesses only long enough to learn the ropes before breaking out on their own. An alternative approach (particularly if they also have a need for safety) is to have a traditional job but to channel their passions into a business 'on the side'. Technical of functional competence
Many people have greater talent and interest in some particular areas. Some home in on these areas and develop this into a whole career or specialist. This may include long study, both in initial qualification and long-term study that may turn the person into a significant expert.
Whilst money is important as an indicator of success and status, the greatest accolade such people can receive is recognition from their peers. In work, they seek to get onto the latest projects that will challenge them and help them develop their expertise, reaching and staying on the leading edge of their profession.
It can be a frustration for such specialists that their career path is limited and that to progress within a company they will have to move into management. Great engineers can make terrible and unhappy managers, yet thus often happens as they see this as the only career path available to them. A part of the problem is that they keep trying to get back to their area of interest, including 'micro-managing' the people who are still doing the job. In this way, experts can make poor people managers.
Managerial competence
In contrast to the technical/functional specialists, some people find management a great pleasure in itself and early in their career they will move into managing people and businesses.
They are often generalists in scope, preferring a broad understanding of the business and market to a narrow specialism. They love responsibility and broad challenge and take pride in achieving great things for the company. They are typically good at sizing up complex situations and people and enjoy making decisions.
They may have good 'people skills' although this is not always true as some succeed by knowing what must be done and forcing through decisions. Others are better at inspiring their followers to work towards a challenging vision. With an increasing focus in the modern age on human rights and people skills, the task-based bully is a fading management leadership paradigm.
Other anchors
Although Schein identifies the above five anchors as the primary ones, he also notes that there may be other anchors, including:
Variety and change
Power and influence
Helping others

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