Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas MANAGEMENT

Anduvate Ray Solomon

UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY -AFRICA |

Contents INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 3 CULTURAL DIMENSIONS AND DILLEMAS .................................................................................................... 5 Value Orientations and Dimensions ........................................................................................................ 5 Trompenaars Seven Dimensions ............................................................................................................. 5 Kluckholn & Strodbeck’s Value Orientation Theory ............................................................................... 7 Short Comings ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Cultural Orientations and Dimensions .................................................................................................... 9 Classifying Culture Conceptual Dimensions .......................................................................................... 11 The Hofstede Dimension .................................................................................................................... 12 Trompenaars’ 7 Dimensions .................................................................................................................. 18 Universalism Vs Particularism ........................................................................................................... 18 Individualistic Vs Communitariasm ................................................................................................... 18 Neutral Vs Affective ........................................................................................................................... 19 Specific Vs Diffuse .............................................................................................................................. 19 Achieved Vs Ascribed Status .............................................................................................................. 19 Sequential Vs Synchronous Cultures ................................................................................................. 20 Dimensions and Dilemmas Effect on Society ........................................................................................ 20 Positive effects ................................................................................................................................... 21 RECONCILING CULTURAL DILEMMAS ........................................................................................................ 22 How does Reconciliation Work? ............................................................................................................ 24 Dilemmas from Interaction of Cultures in Business .............................................................................. 26 Reconciling Cultural Conflicts ................................................................................................................ 27 Relationships and Rules: Universalism vs. Particularism .................................................................. 27 The Communitarian Method ............................................................................................................. 28 Feelings and Relationships in Culture and Business ......................................................................... 29 People Involvement and Cultural Orientation .................................................................................. 30 Ascription and Achievement in Relation to Status ........................................................................... 32 The Concept of Time and Nature in Cultural Diversity ..................................................................... 33 Reconciling Cultural Dilemmas in Business ........................................................................................... 35 CULTURAL CLASHES AND DERIVATIVE CONFLICTS .................................................................................... 37 Why Cultures Clash ................................................................................................................................ 38 The Gender Era ................................................................................................................................... 38 1|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

The Haves versus the Have-nots ........................................................................................................ 39 The colored and Non-colored ............................................................................................................ 40 Conflict Based on a Difference of Cultural Value Interpretations ........................................................ 41 Punctuality .......................................................................................................................................... 42 Communication Styles........................................................................................................................ 42 Identities ............................................................................................................................................. 43 Negotiation Style ................................................................................................................................ 44 Involvement and role of Third Parties ............................................................................................... 44 STAGES OF THE RECONCILIATION PROCESS .............................................................................................. 44 The 5 stages of reconciliation ............................................................................................................ 46 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 48 Recommendations ..................................................................................................................................... 49 Bibliography................................................................................................................................................ 51

2|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

INTRODUCTION  According to Schein (2004) culture is a set of basic assumptions, shared solutions to universal problems of external adaptations (how to survive) and internal integration which have evolved over time and are handed down from one generation to the next  Hofstede (1980) also defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another  Culture includes systems of values; and values are among the building blocks of culture. While human nature is inherited, culture is learned; however, individuals within all cultures vary based on differences, preferences, values, and experiences.  According to Schein (1999), a culture starts developing in a context where a group of people have a shared experience. Members of a family for example share a life together and develop certain togetherness through undergoing experiences inside and outside.  In a business context, culture can develop at different levels within a department or at various ranks of hierarchy.  Hofstede (2011) identifies cultural dimensions that are globally applicable and are reflected in all aspects of life, including family life, child-rearing practices, education, employment, and health care practices. Hofstede developed a dimensional approach to cross cultural comparisons through his pioneering studies into how management is affected by differences between cultural groupings.  Cultural dimensions were used to examine the practices and values construct at industrial, organizational and societal level.

3|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

 Cultural dilemma on the other hand is a cultural situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more alternatives especially ones that are equally undesirable .Business ethics controls the decisions made in cultural dilemmas.  Cultural synergy is key in cultural dimension as it’s the process of building upon the very differences in the world’s people for mutual growth and accomplishment by cooperation.  Cultural synergy through collaboration emphasizes similarities and common concerns and integrates differences to enrich human activities and systems.  In their book Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner argue that there are major cultural differences between nations and that they affect the process of doing business and managing organizations. 1  The difficulties that arise when cultural borders are crossed concern mainly the diminishing effectiveness of management processes that occurs when multinational companies, ignoring cultural differences, try to apply in foreign country subsidiaries management formulas that are derived from their own cultural context and proved to be successful in that culture. 2  The main problem here is that while the differences play a very important role in the success of any international organisation, they cannot be easily grasped because their effects are not directly measurable by objective and quantifiable criteria.

1 2

(Vreja, 2013) (Vreja, 2013)

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CULTURAL DIMENSIONS AND DILLEMAS Value Orientations and Dimensions According to Kluckhon and Strodbeck value orientations are complex principles that are the result of interaction between 3 elements:  Cognitive  Affective  Directive 3 assumptions to classify universal components of value orientations  There are limited number of common human problems for which all people at all times must find some solutions  There are many ways of solving problems.  Societies have different preferences when it comes to solutions. There are five orientations  Human nature orientation: this is the goodness or badness of human nature  Man- nature orientation: Harmony with nature and mastery over nature  Time orientation: past, pesent and future as the basis for decision making  Activity orientation: being, being-in-becoming and doing.  Relational orientation: means orientation to one another. Trompenaars Seven Dimensions Culture has its own specific solutions for universal problems 5|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

i.

Universalism Vs Particularism Universalism: absolute rules apply irrespective of circumstances and situations Particularism: Circumstances and relationships are more important consideration than absolutes Collectivism: Social concern and altruism

ii.

Neutral Vs Affective relationships: should emotions be exhibited in business relations?

iii.

Specific vs Diffuse relationship: 3 Specific: Company employees are hired contractually to be part of a system which performs efficiently Diffuse: Employees are members of a group working together. Their relations to each other and the organization determine how the company functions.

iv.

Achievement Vs Ascription: Achievement: business people are evaluated by how they perform allocated function. Ascription: Status is attributed to older people, highly qualified or good family

v.

Sequential Vs. Synchronic time: Sequential: One activity one time Synchronic: Time is flexible and intangible

vi.

Inner Vs Outer Directed Internal: One’s personal conviction is the starting point of every action and this may

3

(Price, 2011)

6|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

result in conflict. External: Sensitive to the environment and seeks harmony. 4 Kluckholn & Strodbeck’s Value Orientation Theory Question

Orientation

Description

Time

Past

Focus on the past and on the preserving and maintaining traditional teachings and beliefs

Present

Focus on the present and on accommodating changes in beliefs and traditions.

Future

Focus on the future, planning ahead and seeking new ways to replace the old

Humanity and natural

Mastery

environment

We can and should exercise total control over forces of and in nature and supernatural

Harmonious

We can and should exercise control by living in a balance with the natural forces.

Submissive/ subjugation

4

(Price, 2011)

7|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

We cannot and should not exercise control over natural forces but rather are subject to the higher power of these forces Relating to other

Hierarchical/

Emphasis on hierarchical principals and

people

lineal

deferring to higher authority within the group

Emphasis on consensus within the extended As equals/

group of equals

collateral Emphasis on the individual or individual families Individualistic

within the group who makes decisions independently from others

Motive for behaving

Being

Our motivation is internal, emphasizing activity valued by ourselves but not necessarily by others in the group.

Be-in-becoming

Motivation is to develop and grow in abilities which are valued by us, although not necessarily by others.

Achievement/ doing

8|Cultural Dimensions & Dilemmas

Our motivation is external to us, emphasizing activity that is valued by ourselves and approved by others in the group

Short Comings  Deals with values rather than attitudes  It is general rather than specific and so can only be used to examine general trends in behaviour and not used to predict specific behaviours in any one situation.  Most behaviour is multiply determined and so the theory may be termed as simplistic in that it attempts to explain one dimension at a time  It uses rankings and preferences make it difficult to analyse statistically. 5 Cultural Orientations and Dimensions i.

Nature of humans Good/ Evil: The basic nature of people is essentially good or evil. Changeable/Unchangeable: The basic nature of human beings is changeable from good to evil or evil to good or its not changeable.

ii.

Relationships Individual: Our primary responsibility is to and for ourselves as individuals and next of our immediate family. Collective: Our primary responsibility is to and for a larger extended group of people

5

(Hills, 2002)

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such as extended family or society. Hierarchical: Power and responsibility are naturally unequally distributed throughout society, those in higher in hierarchy are responsible and have power over those lower. iii.

Activity Doing: People should continually engage in activity engage in activity to accomplish tangible tasks. Thinking: People should consider all aspects of a situation carefully and rationally before taking action. Being: People should be spontaneous and do everything in its due team.

iv.

Space Public: The space around someone belongs to everyone and may be used by everyone. Private: The space around someone belongs to that person and cannot be used by everyone else without permission.

3 key assumptions that distinguish Strodbeck and Kluckholn from others  Individuals are clearly identified as the holders for the preferences for variations and the cultural pattern is defined by patterns among individual performances.  All dimensions are pressured to be found in all societies but each society is proposed to exhibit at the aggregate level, a defining work order of elements within each orientation.  Dimensions are proposed to be conceptually independent, even within orientations. 6

6

(Martha L Mazneveski, 2002)

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Classifying Culture Conceptual Dimensions US anthropologists divided culture according to the ways of communicating:  High Context (much of the information is implicit)  Low Context ( nearly everything is explicit)  This was advanced by Edward T. Hall in 1976. In practice the distinction overlaps largely with traditional versus modern distinction.  US sociologists Talcott Parsons and Edward Shills (1951) suggested that all human activity is determined by five pattern variables, choices between pairs of alternatives: i.

Affectivity Vs Affective neutrality

ii.

Self-orientation Vs collectivistic orientation

iii.

Universalism Vs Particularism

iv.

Ascription Vs Achievement

v.

Specificity Vs Diffuseness.

 Parsons and Shills claimed that these choices are present at the individual (personality) level, social system and at the cultural level. They did not take into account that different variables could operate at different aggregation levels.  US anthropologists Florence Kluckholn and Fred Strodbeck ran a field study in five geographically close small communities in the South West United States: Mormons, Spanish Americans, Texans, Nevaho Indians and Zuni Indians. They distinguished this communities on the following orientations: i.

An evaluation of human nature (evil-mixed-good)

ii.

The relationship of man to surrounding natural environment.

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iii.

Orientation on time

iv.

Orientation towards activity

v.

Relationships among people.

The Hofstede Dimension Power Distance

 Power Distance has been defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.  This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.  Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society. All societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others. 7 Small Power Distance

High Power Distance

Use of power should be legitimate and is

Power is a basic fact of society antedating

subject to criteria of good and evil

good or evil: its legitimacy is irrelevant

Parents treat children as equals

Parents teach children obedience

Older people are neither respected nor

Older people are both respected and feared

feared Student-centred education

Teacher-centred education Hierarchy means existential inequality

7

(Hofstede, 2011)

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Hierarchy means inequality of roles, established for convenience

Uncertainty Avoidance

 Uncertainty Avoidance is not the same as risk avoidance; it deals with a society's tolerance for ambiguity.  It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations.  Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict behavioural codes, laws and rules, disapproval of deviant opinions, and a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance

Strong Uncertainty Avoidance

The uncertainty inherent in life is accepted

The uncertainty inherent in life is felt as a

and each day is taken as it comes

continuous threat that must be fought

Ease, lower stress, self-control, low anxiety

Higher stress, emotionality, anxiety,

Higher scores on subjective health and

neuroticism

wellbeing

Lower scores on subjective health and well-

Tolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what

being

is different is curious 13 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

Comfortable with ambiguity and chaos

Intolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is different is dangerous Need for clarity and structure

Individualism

 Individualism on the one side versus its opposite, Collectivism, as a societal, not an individual characteristic, is the degree to which people in a society are integrated into groups.  On the individualist side we find cultures in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family.  On the collectivist side we find cultures in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty, and oppose other in-groups.  Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world. 8

8

(Hofstede, 2011)

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Individualism

Collectivism

Everyone is supposed to take care of him- or

People are born into extended families or

herself and his or her immediate family only

clans which protect them in exchange for

"I" – consciousness

loyalty

Right of privacy Stress on belonging

"We" –consciousness Speaking one's mind is healthy Harmony

Others classified as individuals

should always be maintained Others classified as in-group or out-group

Masculinity – Femininity

 Masculinity versus its opposite, Femininity, again as a societal, not as an individual characteristic, refers to the distribution of values between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society, to which a range of solutions can be found.  The IBM studies revealed that: a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other.  The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much 15 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values. In masculine cultures there is often a taboo around this dimension (Hofstede et al., 1998). Femininity

Masculinity

Minimum emotional and social role

Maximum emotional and social role

differentiation between the genders

differentiation between the genders

Men and women should be modest and

Men should be and women may be assertive

caring

and ambitious Work prevails over family

Balance between family and work

Admiration for the strong

Sympathy for the weak Admiration for the

Fathers deal with facts, mothers with feelings

strong Both fathers and mothers deal with facts and feelings

Long-Term Vs Short Term Orientation

Short Term Orientation

Long Term Orientation

Most important events in life occurred in the

Most important events in life will occur in the

past or take place now

future A good person adapts to the circumstances

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Personal steadiness and stability: a good person is always the same

What is good and evil depends upon the

There are universal guidelines about what is

circumstances

good and evil

Traditions are adaptable to changed

Traditions are sacrosanct

circumstances Family life guided by shared tasks

Family life guided by imperatives

Indulgence Vs Restraint

Indulgence

Restraint

Higher percentage of people declaring themselves very happy A perception of personal life control

Fewer very happy people

Freedom of speech seen as important Higher importance of leisure Lower importance of leisure More likely to remember positive emotions

to me is not my own doing

A perception of helplessness: what happens Freedom of speech is not a primary concern leisure Lower importance of leisure Less likely to remember positive emotion

9

9

(Hofstede, 2011)

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Trompenaars’ 7 Dimensions Universalism Vs Particularism  More universalists cultures tend to feel that general rules and obligations are a strong source of moral reference. Universalists tend to follow the rules even when friends are involved and look for the one best way of dealing equally and fairly with all cases.  Particularistic societies are those where particular circumstances are much more important than the rules. Bonds of particular relationships are stronger than any abstract rule and the response may change according to circumstances and the people involved.  North Americans and Northern Europeans are almost totally univerlistic in their approach to problems. Latins, Africans and Asians would lie in order to protect their friends. Individualistic Vs Communitariasm Two people were discussing ways in which one could improve the quality of life.  One said, it is obvious that if one has as much freedom as possible and the maximum opportunity to develop oneself, then the quality of one’s life will improve as a result.  The other said, ‘if the individual continuously takes care of his fellow human beings the quality of life will improve for everyone, even if it obstructs individual freedom and individual development.

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 The individualist culture sees the individual as the end and improvements to collective arrangements as the means to achieve it. The communitarian culture sees the group as its end and improvements to individual capacities as a means to the end. Neutral Vs Affective  In relationships between people, reason and emotion both play a role. Which of these will dominate depends on whether we are affective (display our emotions) in which case we probably get an emotional response in return or whether we are emotionally neutral in our approach. We are still emotional but don’t reveal to others. 10 Specific Vs Diffuse  The cultural dimension deals with the degree to which we engage others in specific areas of life and single levels of personality or diffusely in multiple areas of our lives and at several levels at the same time.  A specific culture is one where the majority believe in shareholder value. A diffuse culture is where its all about weltanschaunng: its holistic. They would emphasize shareholder value. Specific is analytic and diffuse is holistic or synthetic. Achieved Vs Ascribed Status  Some societies accord status to people on the basis of their achievements whereas others ascribe status by virtue of age, status by virtue of age, class, gender, education etc. The first kind we call achieved status and the second ascribed status. While achieved status refers to what you do, ascribed status refers to being (who you are)

10

(Williams, 2003)

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 Achievement oriented cultures will market their products and services on the basis of their performance. Performance skill and knowledge justify the authority.  Ascription oriented cultures often ascribe status to products and services. The status is generally independent of task, specific function or technical performance. Sequential Vs Synchronous Cultures  This orientation is about the relative meaning and thereby importance of time. These include how they give meaning to the past, present and future and to the long versus short term.  How we think of time has its own consequences, especially important is whether our view of time is sequential- a series of passing events or whether it is synchronic with past, present and future all interrelated so that the ides about the future and memories of the past both shape present action. 11

Dimensions and Dilemmas Effect on Society Negative effects 1. Practice and delivery of services are affected by personal and structural issues surrounding cultural and ethnic differences. E.g. currently in Kenya, the distribution of BVR Kits for voter registration has been said to be ethnically biased 2. Unfair discrimination against different ethnic and cultural groups has become rampant due to cultural dilemmas that have remained un-reconciled.

11

(Williams, 2003)

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3. Discrimination of minority groups due to cultural dimensions in one place can lead to cultural dilemmas in another culture. 4. Childhood experiences have been moulded around cultural dimensions and with the changing times, have undergone varied changes some leading to cultural dilemmas. E.g. growing up in the Middle East, believing that women are inferior then working in the West where gender equality prevails will lead to dilemmas in various situations Positive effects 1. Cultural identity is strengthened due to a developed understanding of cultural differences and cultural sensitivity thus we can work effectively with cultural differences. 2. The rights and interests of members of society are protected because we have become global-minded and have begun adapting to other people’s ways. 3. Respect and maintaining the dignity of all members of the society since there is understanding of the different dimensions 4. Promote equal opportunities for all members of the society when they go through reconciliation process and begin healing after conflicts 5. Respect diversity and different cultures and values 6. Promote the independence of society members and assist them to understand and exercise their rights 7. Not discriminate unlawfully or unjustifiably against any society members 21 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

8. Not condone any unlawful or unjustifiable discrimination by members of society. RECONCILING CULTURAL DILEMMAS  When businesses cross cultures there are many potential situations in which the reconciliation of differences may be both desirable and necessary. The success of the business being conducted may depend on it.  Reconciliation is part of building transcultural competence.  The three very essential components of transcultural competence are: i.

Awareness

ii.

Respect

iii.

Reconciling cultural differences

 Cultural awareness is understanding states of mind, your own and the person being encountered. You can never be fully informed, since the permutations of options are countless.  Especially important are the processes of reconciliation. Without the confidence that reconciliation is possible, awareness can bring pain and frustration can emerge from respect.  However, awareness and respect are necessary foundations for reconciling cultural differences. If people lack sufficient awareness of the differences that may exist between cultures, they may easily damage a relationship without intending to do so.  Respect is most effectively developed once people recognize that most cultural differences are in themselves, but they have not recognised most of them.  One could say that Westerners think the Japanese are mystics, at times even unreliable. It is difficult to know what they feel or think, they always say ‘yes', even in cases where they might feel or think negatively about it. 22 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

 Yet, consider the case where a child has given a nervous and halting performance in her first solo in a school concert. She must go on again after the interval. Might her father not say 'Wonderful, darling' to give her confidence, although he did not actually believe her performance was good?  To sum up, both awareness and respect are necessary steps toward developing transcultural competence. But even their combined powers may not always suffice. People often ask questions such as: 'Why should only we respect and adapt to the other culture?  Why don't they respect and adapt to ours?' Another, perhaps more interesting problem is that of mutual empathy (Bennett, 1979). What happens when one person attempts to shift to another culture's perspective when at the same time the other person is trying to do the same thing?  Motorola University recently prepared carefully for presentation in China. Am the constable thought, ft. was entitled 'Relationships do not retire.‘ The gist of the presenting that Motorola had come to china to stay and help the economy to create wash.  Relationships with Chinese suppliers, sub-contractors and employees would constitute a Pennant commitment to building Chinese economic infrastructure and earning hard currency through exports  The Chinese audiences listened politely to the presentation, but were quiet when they were to ask questions. Finally, one manager put up his hand and said: ‘Can you tell us about pay for performance? 12

12

(Price, 2011)

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 What was happening here is very common. Even as the Americans moved towards the Chinese perspective, the Chinese started to move towards theirs, and the two sides passed each other invisibly, like ships in the night.  Remember that the Chinese who turn out for a presentation by a western company, may already be pro-Western and see Western views as potentially liberating.  This dynamic is especially strong when a country is small and poor. when a drug salesman from a US company meets with a health minister from costa Rica, the former's salary may be ten times the latter's.  The temptation to ‘sell out ‘one’s own culture is overwhelmingly strong and, of course, such encounters only harden prejudices. ‘See, they all want to be like us.'  However, foreign cultures have integrity, which only some of its members will abandon, people who abandon their culture often become weakened and corrupt.  Companies need foreigners to be themselves if partnership is to work. It is this very difference that makes the relationship valuable.  This is why people need to reconcile differences, to be them-selves, but at the same time see and understand how the other's perspectives can help their own.  Once one is aware of one’s own mental models and cultural predispositions and once one can respect and understand those of mother culture are legitimately different, then it becomes possible to reconcile differences.

How does Reconciliation Work?  Reconciling cultural dilemmas is essentially a change process in which stakeholders in a dilemma create new solutions to old issues and problems that were leading to the dilemmas.

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 The dilemmas are used to make culture operational and also can be used to measure the effectiveness of the development and change initiative as it is implemented.  Regardless of the potential of the cultural dilemmas approach, we caution that, before Organizational Development and Change professionals can become transculturally competent, they must also have scientifically based theories and methods by which to understand and deal with culture. 13  Reconciliation results in the integration of values through synergy.  Synergy is achieved through: i.

Processing: The activity in which a dilemma is made into two processes i.e centralizing vs decentralizing.

ii.

Contextualizing: One has to decide what is text and what is context

iii.

Sequencing: You can first centralize and later decentralize. Every process of reconciliation is a sequence.

iv.

Synergizing: Best explained by adding the word through between two opposite interactions/ orientations. I.e. How can we increase the quality of our offerings through better learning from our decentralized operations? 14

Stages of reconciliation Process

Method Employed to arrive at next stage

Reaffirm our commitment to the ongoing

Think win-win and concentrate on the benefits of

relationship and its benefit to both parties

collaboration to each culture.

Recognize where & how we differ

Develop a global mind-set Legitimise diversity Acquire knowledge of other culture

13 14

(Friedman, 2014) (Price, 2011)

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Display acceptance when appropriate Continue by searching for similarities

Employ dialogue

Synthesize our solutions or create outcomes

Practise creative thinking

which utilize the most appropriate elements of

Demonstrate willingness to learn

opposing cultural dimensions

Dialogue

Review the learning process, capture it and make

Practice experience based learning

it available for future reference.

Articulate what has been seen and known Act on learning at a later stage

Dilemmas from Interaction of Cultures in Business  Culture is a paradigm by which a group of people operates and lives in their environment. An interaction of cultures may point out difficulties and even conflicts in the understanding and action of each party involved in business.  Basically, there are types of dilemmas arising from this interaction, namely: 1. Universalism vs. Particularism, or rules vs. relationships 2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism, or individual vs. group 3. Neutral vs. Affective range of feelings expressed 4. Specific vs. Diffuse range of involvement in business relationships, and 5. Achievement vs. Ascription of status given to individuals. 15

15

(Turner, 2000)

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Reconciling Cultural Conflicts Relationships and Rules: Universalism vs. Particularism  The clash between Universalist (rule-based) and particularist (relationship-based) orientations in business is inevitable.  However, understanding the cultural patterns involved in the business transaction will make such reconciliation possible.

Universalist Approach to Rules and Relationships  The Universalist behavior gives more priority on the rules and restrictions than the relationships fostered in the business.  Being rule-based means that it follows the law to the letter and tends to be consistent in order to avoid precedents brought about by exemptions.  Obligation to follow the law is thus truthful, unbiased, and applicable to all regardless of position or achievement.

Particularist Orientation in Relationships and Rules  Compared to the universalist paradigm, particularist behavior presents the contrary.  Much emphasis is given on the relationship and the ways to sustain and protect the person regardless of what the rules say.  The rules may be compromised in order to promote the welfare of the person, which is considered a “friend.”

Reconciling Universal and Particular Orientations in Business  The universalist-particularist dilemma appears on four specific examples dealing with business, namely the contract, timing a business trip, the role of head office, and job evaluations and

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rewards. In these examples, Universalists tend to overlook the importance of relationships, while particularists fail to take note of the relevance of the rules in all cases.  This dilemma creates a vicious cycle, where both the Universalist and particularist find solutions by presenting itself as the best answer, just to know that there are still conflicts created further in the process. In the end, it is neither an extreme side nor a compromise that will work out, but a synergy of values that would make both values work together for the good of both parties.

Culture in Relation to the Group and the Individual  A culture is considered individualist when there exists a prime orientation to the self, while a culture is characterized as communitarian when the stress is given on the welfare of the community or group rather than the self. Again, it is essential to reconcile these two extremes through the perspective of culture.

Individualist Approach to Business Relationships  In the individualist approach, the individual person is considered as the “end” of all action, while the improvements brought about by the community are its “means.” Thus, the individual finds its fulfillment in the communal, as the communal goals give value and benefit to the individual person.

The Communitarian Method  The communitarian approach presents the contrary of the individualist. The communitarian culture perceives the group as the “end,” while the individual is the “means” to achieve it. The good of the entire community is therefore possible through the individuals who contribute to the betterment of the community.

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The Individual and the Group: What Comes First?  In this dilemma, a seemingly irreconcilable clash between the individualist and communitarian falls into another vicious cycle of presenting one value as solution to the opposite value. It must be made clear that it is a mistake to perceive the individualists as people who do not care for the community. Instead, individuals serve the community for common benefit, while the community in turn returns to the individuals what is due to them. 16  The reconciliation depends on the appropriate approach to be taken in a given situation. Individuals are expected to participate in order to be a better team member, while the group membership must support the individuals to become better individual persons.

Feelings and Relationships in Culture and Business  The interplay of reason and emotions is important in making business relationships work. Affective relationships are characterized by a free expression of emotions, while neutral relationships are impersonal and thus professional in its approach. Once again, the reconciliation of both approaches can be done through culture.

Affective Associations in Business  Highly effective people are influenced by the culture around them. A free and unrestrained expression of feelings is considered as an outlet for associating with people around them. Direct emotional response is similarly expected from the people whom they interact with in a given situation. People involved in this kind of relationship have an intimate bond with one another in the workplace.

16

(Turner, 2000)

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Neutral Way of Dealing with Business Matters  People who belong to affectively neutral cultures control and hold back their feelings, thus not expressing them easily over people or a situation. These people relate with their colleagues in a more professional sense, since the response sought is rather indirect compared to the direct response from affective cultures.

Degrees of Affectivity and Its Expression  There are various degrees of affectivity depending on the various cultural patterns followed by people. On the one hand, people may exhibit their emotions and join it with the objectives of the business. On the other hand, people may exhibit their emotions, and in turn separate their emotions in order to handle a situation in a professional manner.

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication as Basis for Affectivity  Various styles of verbal and non-verbal communication also depict the level of affectivity, where in the course of exchange in information, the meanings carried by the carrier of the message must be carefully identified and assessed lest misinterpretations occur in the transaction.

Negotiating with People and Business: Affective or Neutral?  When these two entirely different cultures meet, it is necessary to recognize the difference in their manners of expression, and to desist from making judgments based on emotion or the lack of them. A free expression of emotions may not really present lack of control over emotions, while a neutral emotion does not postulate a rather emotionless person emotions, and in turn separate their emotions in order to handle a situation in a professional manner.

People Involvement and Cultural Orientation  Engaging with people will enable a person to have access on certain areas of life, either it is specific or single levels of a person's character, or it is multiple areas of one's personality. These 30 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

directly involve the life space or levels of personality that a certain alliance is founded upon. Culture will help one to understand how to deal with people whose relationships may vary from one person to the other. 17

Specific Relationships  People in specific-oriented cultures tend to segregate their relationships and simply allot a particular area of one's private life for a particular partnership. There are areas of one's life space where certain people have no access, and the person limits such access to the specific job and purpose that this alliance is made.

Diffuse Partnerships  In diffuse cultures, it is relatively difficult to barge into the “large” private aspect of one's life, thus limiting persons to the “small” public areas of one's life space. However, once a person is able to get through a diffuse culture-bred person's public space, one is also admitted to all the other private areas in one's life space.

Resolving Specific-Diffuse Dilemma  Both diffuse and specific cultural paradigms are actually strategies used to know other people. On one hand, one may start with the specific position and then get to know the other person more, making mutual benefits for both parties. On the other hand, one may start with the people whom they have access on multiple life spaces before going to a specific partnership.  Therefore, the interplay of both approaches is recommended because business is done professionally and deep relationships breed strong affiliations among partners.

17

(Turner, 2000)

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Ascription and Achievement in Relation to Status  A person's status in a company or group is considered indispensable, for this is conferred upon a person through titles, roles, and responsibilities. Status depends on two different yet interconnected things, namely, ascription and achievement.  In relation to status of persons, what should be stressed upon, ascription or achievement? Culture will elucidate our way of understanding this.

Ascribing and Involvement  Ascribed status refers to being to what or who a person is. This could be based on age and experience, education and professional qualifications, and the like.  The conferment of status has a positive effect on the person, for this may lead to a self- fulfilling prophecy, as the person lives up to the status ascribed by the people around him. In that regard, the person “deserves” the status given to him before he actually earns it.

Achievement and Performance Perspective  While ascribing refers to being, achieved status refers to doing, to what a person does. Status is conferred upon the accomplishment of a certain task or goal. Unlike ascribed status, achieved status requires the person to earn what he deserves to have his status bestowed upon him, he has to work his way through it and prove that he deserves it.

How to Accord Status: Ascription vs. Achievement  Companies usually pay particular attention to ascription and achievement in the hiring, employment, and promotion of employees. These two factors actually develop together, and should not be considered as separate from each other.  On the one hand, if a person begins with ascription, it is important to work and achieve the goals, to prove that what was granted was rightfully deserved. On the other hand, if a person 32 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

started with achievement, ascription enters as a guide to successful projects or persons, towards which achievement could be done.

The Concept of Time and Nature in Cultural Diversity  Two key terms in the discussion of culture are time and nature. Time refers to a line of sequential events that forms a continuum of experiences. Nature is defined as the environment where human existence takes its actuality. The various understandings of time and nature can be attributed to the various cultures whose meanings are shared with one another in a group. This, in turn, is also necessary in the enculturation of business in a certain situation.

Concept of Time Sequential vs. Synchronic Time Orientations  Sequential time refers to a series of passing events that arise from a certain action in a definite situation. On the other hand, synchronic time suggests that the past, present and future events are related with one another, and that the flashback of the past and the visualization of the future shape and mold the present time.  People who observe sequential time tend to do one activity at a time and subordinate oneself to the schedule, while people who use synchronic time tend to do multiple tasks and schedules, and subordinate to various relationships. How to Manage Time  Sequential and synchronic time orientations may vary from one another, but these two time orientations can merge together through scenario planning.  Scenario planning is a method where the past, present, and future are synchronized and would eventually trace the point where the past has diverged upon to the present through the use of narratives and stories. Hence, each synchronic scene has different sequences of events included. 33 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

Concept of Nature  At the center of human existence is the concept of nature the very environment where human existence takes into being. Survival could only be possible through the presence of a setting that would promote and sustain human life. Man could either control nature or let nature take its course, the former being internal locus of control while the latter being external locus of control. Internal Locus and External Locus of Control  Internal locus of control is characterized by man's control of nature by necessitating his will over it, thus directed towards the optimal use of nature for man’s needs. External locus of control lets man go along with the laws, directions, and forces of nature that in turn will produce various products of nature to man. 18 How to Relate with Nature: Managing the two Loci of Control  Using both internal and external loci of control, man was able to change the view of nature according to his productive functions and respective focus of control. Primitive sciences, employing the external locus of control, were able to maximize organic nature into arts and forms.  The renaissance witnessed a shift from external to external locus of control, thus producing a mechanistic nature that focused on techniques and transformations. Through the reconciliation of both internal and external loci of control, the modern era utilized cybernetic nature in order to develop a cybernetic cosmology of various applied sciences.  This synergy of internal and external loci of control made use of opportunities present in nature by making the most out of the present forces of nature and knowing those forces that ought not to be contradicted.

18

(Turner, 2000)

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Reconciling Cultural Dilemmas in Business 1. Awareness of Cultural Paradigm and its Differences Sufficient and ample awareness of cultural differences in dealing with business is a prerequisite for the success of a business proposal. It is recommended for businesses to have a systematic understanding of these cultural differences, most especially in cross-cultural management. Without which, devastating effects ranging from misunderstanding among transcultural partners to abortion of business transaction may occur. 2. Respecting differences in Cultural Mind Frame Looking for situations in one's own life in which one would be behaving like a person belonging to another culture serves as the starting point of respecting the differences in national patterns of corporate culture. Appreciating and respecting these cultural patterns that are different from one's own prevents one from prematurely valuing a behavior as negative. 3. Reconciling Cultural differences After the awareness and respect for cultural differences, the reconciliation between national patterns of corporate culture becomes the last essential step to take. The transcultural companies are encouraged to strive together in establishing the necessary systems and mechanisms that will promote the mutual benefit of both parties. Here are ten steps that are useful in attaining the reconciliation of cultural dilemmas. 1. Theory of complementarity the individual is more or less separate from the group, and so universalism and particularism are different but not separate. The individual contributes to the good of the group, as a value that every individual aims at.

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2. Using humor Dilemmas could be made known through the cautious use of humor, where the clash of two various perspectives is part of the business. Contrary values that suggest to one another that they are the solution to their concerns must be communicated in the most fitting manner depending on the situation available in life 3. Mapping out a cultural space mapping out some or all of the seven dimensions of a culture's cultural space helps in the awareness, recognition and reconciliation of cultural dilemmas. Interviews and questionnaires may be used to facilitate this mapping process. 4. From nouns to present participles and processes the proper choice of words is important in finding the suitable words for discussion. And so, business transactions with people from different cultural patterns would make the reconciliation possible. 5. Language and meta-language Language can achieve reconciliation in transcultural dilemmas by handling two ideas in mind and still have the capacity to function. 6. Frames and context grasping the sense of the text and trying to reverse the text and context in order to draw the right meanings for languages and the like. 7. Sequencing the processes involving conflicting values overtime. 8. Waving/cycling continuous correction of errors in order to strike at the right requirement, which is also known as error correcting system. 9. Synergizing and virtuous circling having two values work with one another in mutual facilitation and enhancement. 10. The double helix Summarizes all nine processes by adjoining complementariness, using humor to convey a message, mapping for cultural space, monitoring growth processes, using language to communicate dilemmas, analyzing situations based on the context to which one belongs to by observing 36 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

the sequences of waves and cycles, and making two distinct values to create a synergy or fusion for further growth and development. 19

CULTURAL CLASHES AND DERIVATIVE CONFLICTS  Through globalization, the world has been crystallized into somewhat a global community; multinationals too are enriched by the diversity of their employees. As the world gets smaller, people from different cultures are colliding like never before.  This diversity may include different nationalities, ethnicities, and religions, a range of gender and sexuality identities, and differences between generations.  All these groups bring their culture –attitudes and behaviors- to the workplace; whether working with peers, reporting to management, relating to customers or negotiating with business partners, conflict will almost inevitably arise at some point.  Conflict in the workplace can vary from a minor annoyance or nuisance to a major challenge to core cultural values.  Invalid source specified., defines conflict as cultural values and beliefs that place people at odds with one another.  Wars can be as a result of cultural conflict; the differing views and ideology on slavery were one of the reasons for the American civil war 20.

19 20

(Turner, 2000) Invalid source specified.

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Why Cultures Clash The Gender Era  For years on end –decades if you may- the world of business and all things trade had purely been dominated by the male gender.  In more recent years, we witnessed women attempt to infiltrate this very world, unwelcome as they were; initially, it seemed strange, queer, against tradition and outright unheard of.  Few women broke away from the mold –and mentality that the woman’s place was purely in the kitchen- and set a trend that many would come to follow.  The degree of course varied tremendously with women from different cultures and diverse geographic backgrounds; some communities, especially from the more modern Western cultures, were more acceptable with this change unlike the more traditional African and Arab masculine settings.  However, even in the more tolerable cultures, women still faced and continue to face a lot of resistance and hostility from their male counterparts and women alike.  This cultural conflict is evidently seen by: •

Women being pigeon-holed into less challenging positions than men.

•

The corporate cultures which discriminate against women

•

The pay gap between man and women in equal positions

38 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

•

Women continue to be unrepresented in senior management levels 21 (Philip. R).

Women are getting stuck as they rocket up the corporate ladder, while mn are falling off the ladder all together. The Haves versus the Have-nots  This conflict is characterized by an economic struggle as argued in the Marxism theory 22.  The have-nots still struggle in the classroom of the haves, widening the gap between the rich and the poor; Marx believed society was a two class system; the Bourgeoisie –the owners of the means of production- and the Proletariat –the workers.  Rich-poor relations have implications for social conflicts in Low Economically developed countriesInvalid source specified.; research conducted for the World Bank Invalid source specified. Claims to have found substantial evidence indicating a sharp increase of violence during the last decade of ever increasing globalization.  This violence was measured using recorded homicide rates in both the two poorest regions of the world –Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, and where growth of inequality has been fastest –Eastern Europe, Russia and central Asia.

21

In most regions, the representation of women continues to diminish at each higher management level; In Israel

women are completely excluded from the senior military ranks.

22

Karl Marx (1818-1883).

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 The figures on crime from this research sort to illustrate the situation and dimensions to current relations between the rich and poor countries and reveals the depth of inequality.  In most countries, blame is shifted towards the elite, who comprise of a mere 1% on average in most societies.  Different peoples try to seek for solutions from different theories to try close the class gap; •

Capitalists tend to subscribe to Adam Smith’s theory that an invisible hand guides the mutually beneficial exchange of goods in a free market thus the economy thrives on competition.

•

Communists subscribe to the ideology of Karl Marx and believe that one day class differences will become so intense; workers will violently overthrow the wealthy and form a classless society.

•

Perhaps a bit off are the social democrats who believe the Congress should pass bills to protect the have-nots.

The colored and Non-colored  Many Blacks and Latinos and other people of color know that discrimination keeps them down, while many Whites believe that race no longer matters.  States do not stand on the sidelines when it comes to discrimination at the workplace; Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 addresses racial discrimination in the work place and prohibits employees from: 40 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

•

Failing to hire an employee based on race

•

Firing on disciplining an employee because of race

•

Failing to provide benefits to an employee due to race

•

Improperly classifying or segregating employees or applicants by race

 Despite this Act race is an underlying issue in most multicultural corporations with others being regarded as superior to the other.  Beth Livingston, an assistant professor of Human Resource studies at Cornell University, described racism in the workplace as overt, and noted it can be hard to characterize it.  In a survey carried out, a handful argued that conflicts based on race are often the result of many micro-aggressions that act as paper cuts leading to a larger wound.  Managers should be efficient and effective in mitigating these racial discrepancies to stop further injury to the organization.  The Constitution of Kenya under the Bill of Rights, Article 27 clause (4) states, The State shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground including race.  In (5) A person shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against another person on any of the grounds specified or contemplated in clause (4).

Conflict Based on a Difference of Cultural Value Interpretations The level of awareness and the dynamics at play should too be considered; the conflict may become apparent in tangible noticeable ways. 41 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

Punctuality  An American businessman may take offense with an African partner who consistently arrives late for meetings; this may cause a strained relationship between the two parties.  In essence, the American hails from a culture where time consciousness is highly valued and considered respectful whereas the African partner comes from a society which prides itself it lateness.  The two will most probably disagree unless they create a middle ground for which the ‘both’ deem acceptable and workable with. Communication Styles  Some of the major variations relate to the division between high-and low-context communications 23.  In high-context communication, most of the message is conveyed by the context surrounding it, rather than being named explicitly in words; physical setting, the tone used and shared understandings are relied upon to give communication meaning.  Interactions feature telegraphing ideas without necessarily spelling them out; nonverbal cues are essential in comprehension of the message; common with Eastern and Southern cultures.

23

A classification devised by Edward, T. Hall.

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 In this particular context, a conflict may arise through the increased possibilities of miscommunication as much of the intended message is unstated and is therefore assumed.  On the contrary, low-context communication emphasizes directness; rather than relying on the context to communicate. Western cultures tend to gravitate towards lowcontext.  Low-context communicators tend to say what they mean, and mean what they say.  Although it may in its own way prevent misunderstandings, conflict may escalate from the fact it is more confrontational and some cultures may consider it an outright act of rudeness. Identities  Identities and roles refer to the concept of self.  People from certain cultures consider themselves as an individual unit, an autonomous free agent and perhaps ultimately responsible for oneself.  Such separate individuals come from what sociologists would term as individualistic cultures as those of the Western world.  They value: competition, independence, individual achievement and self-reliance.  Those for whom group alliances are primary usually come from collectivist or communist settings; they value interdependence and participation in shared progress.  Conflict may escalate from individualist who may see no problem with “no hands barred” confrontation, while their collectivist counterparts may shrink from dishonor or face-loss to their groups by behaving in un-seemingly ways. 43 | C u l t u r a l D i m e n s i o n s & D i l e m m a s

 Individualists may expect to make agreements with communitarians, and may feel betrayed or offended when the latter indicate that they have to take their understandings back to a larger public for consent before closure. Negotiation Style  Negotiation is a means to satisfy needs; an interest based approach is used by conflict by conflict resolution practitioners.  During negotiations, cultures that prefer a direct communication style will seek direct, face to face communication rather than indirect shuttle diplomacy. Involvement and role of Third Parties  Members from a collectivist culture will probably be more comfortable with a team member addressing a conflict rather than bringing in an outsider; to provide counsel and advice with an effort to restore harmony.  On the other hand, individualists may prefer a partial outsider, whose relationship to the team is remote to act as a mediator; however third-parties do not make decisions for disputants. STAGES OF THE RECONCILIATION PROCESS  Reconciliation is itself a complicated, highly contested term. Some see it as simply coexistence, others respect, and others mutual forgiveness.  Kriesberg suggests there are four aspects of reconciliation: •

truth (coming to acknowledge there is some merit to the other side's interpretation of events)

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

•

justice (gaining redress as a means of putting the past to rest)

•

regard (forgiveness on the part of victims)

•

security, (expectations of peaceful coexistence)

Some have also argued that the concept of reconciliation is a profoundly Christian one, whereas others find evidence of similar mechanisms in many cultures.



Clearly, all situations will not see each fully realized. In fact, they are to some degree contradictory.



Some also claim reconciliation to be vague. In the case of Rwanda, after the 1994 genocide, in the wake of such massive violence, there is no goal post past which reconciliation has been achieved. 24



The reconciliation process is indeed a long one. This is compounded by the fact that individuals may take much longer to become reconciled as compared to the group or national level.



Reconciliation is, in fact, not necessarily the end point of every conflict; some may end before complete reconciliation takes place. But all intractable conflicts that really do end must go through some peace-building or reconciliation process if the parties are going to have to interact together again in the future.



Lack of a reconciliation process participation means the conflict is likely to recur, even after a settlement of a particular episode (or dispute) is reached.

Reconciliation here refers to a societal or macro-level process, the necessary groundwork for the very private process of reconciliation to become thinkable.

24

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The 5 stages of reconciliation The 5 stages of reconciliation process as developed by Trompenaars and observed by Estienne (1997) are:

1. Reaffirming our commitment to the on-going, symbiotic relationship. This is enhanced by thinking win-win and concentrating on the mutual benefits to both cultures due to collaboration 2. Recognising where and how we differ. Finding out the differences and similarities among the parties. Methods employed include: •

Developing a global mindset

•

Legitimising diversity E.g. Rwanda 25

•

Acquiring knowledge of other cultures classically demonstrated in Rwanda reconciliation process 26

The reconciliation process in Rwanda focuses on reconstructing the Rwandan identity, as well as balancing justice, truth, peace and security. The Constitution now states that all Rwandans share equal rights. Laws have been passed to fight discrimination and divisive genocide ideology. 26 Ingando: A programme of peace education. From 1999 to 2009, more than 90,000 Rwandans participated in these programmes, which aim to clarify Rwandan history and the origins of division amongst the population, promote patriotism and fight genocide ideology. Itorero: Established in 2007, the Itorero programme is a leadership academy to promote Rwandan values and cultivate leaders who strive for the development of the community. From 2007 to 2009, 115,228 participants took part in the Itorero program. Seminars: Training of grassroots leaders, political party leaders, youth and women in trauma counseling, conflict mitigation and resolution, and early warning systems. 25

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•

Displaying ‘acceptance’ when appropriate 27

3. Continue the process by searching for more similarities through employing open dialogue. 4. Synthesize our solutions or create outcomes which utilize the most appropriate elements of the opposing cultural dimensions. This is by: •

Practice of creative thinking

•

Demonstrating a willingness to learn

•

Dialogue

5. Review the learning process, capture it, and make available for the future. Methods: •

Practising experience-based learning

•

Articulate what has been seen and known

•

Act on learning at a later stage

 According to Estienne (1997), going through these stages is itself a way of developing skills for global business. A rapport has to be maintained by all involved despite cultural

National summits: Since 2000, several national summits have been organized on topics related to justice, good governance, human rights, national security and national history. Research: The National Unity and Reconciliation Commission has published a number of studies investigating the causes of conflicts in Rwanda and how to mitigate and resolve them. Reconciliation villages in Rwanda where perpetrators of violence reside with victims in peace in an ongoing reconciliation process that is upto 22years and counting 27

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differences encountered in order effectiveness of the goals of association can be achieved.  The reconciliation approach may well avoid a situation ending in an impasse. Getting to know the cultural framework of reference of one’s interlocutors seems to be the best way of adapting to their culture(s) and their way of working.  However, a global company or transnational experiences both pain and pleasure from cultural diversity (Hoecklin, 1995).  This is because the conflict between cultures has the potential to generate change internal to the organization, if it is reconciled or resolved. It is the process of managing conflicting value systems which is critical to the success or failure of the development of the organisation and society at large.

Conclusion  In today’s rapidly changing ever oligopolistic world, it is the very essence of organisations to find a methodology to solve cultural dilemmas.  Diversity is increasing in many countries and globalisation is leading to a growing number of international projects.  Cultural differences can either be a source of creativity and enlarged perspectives or they can be a source of difficulties and miscommunication.

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 The literature on cultural differences is steadily increasing and now provides very helpful conceptual frameworks for understanding the different points of view encountered when managing cross-cultural differences in a project or an organisation.  Managers of multi-cultural teams can increase their effectiveness and their firm’s competitiveness by making use of this literature.

Recommendations  To achieve project goals and avoid potential risks, project managers should be culturally sensitive and promote creativity and motivation though flexible leadership.  Project management can succeed in a cross-cultural environment through effective leadership, cross-cultural communication, mutual respect, and reconciliation. Without them it is destined to fail.  Methods used in an organisation may include: •

Providing knowledge about other cultures and the value assumptions which underlie their business practices

•

Making domestic companies aware of the cultural assumptions underlying their own business practices and behaviours, with a view to challenging them

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 At the individual level, assessing the extent to which the individual is sufficiently flexible, adaptable, and open to “other ways of doing things” besides those of his own culture. Is his “cultural conditioning” an absolute, or he is open to reconciling cultures? 28  For the individual wanting to know “how to” survive in the hostile environment which is often another culture, as well as for the “organizational client” seeking a means to use cultural diversity to make it more competitive, I would propose that the way forward is to design consciously development interventions which take care to: •

Develop mindsets among all organizational members to the realities of doing business globally

•

Ensure that the organization is skilled to work through the conflicts caused by cultural differences by putting into practice a “process of cross‐cultural reconciliation”

•

Emphasize the necessity for all members of the company to develop their relational skills.

Summary of reconciliation process according to Trompenaars: 2. Recognize cultural differences 3. Respect different points of view

This brings about the concept of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Negative attitudes towards other cultures and/or ethnic groups arise out of ethnocentrism, while positive attitudes are the result of a culturally relativist approach.

28

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4. Reconcile the dilemmas that result from the tensions between different value orientations (cultures) 5. Realize the business benefits of implementing the reconciliations and embedding a mindset across the organization that continually reconciles dilemmas Benefits of reconciliation •

develop Individuals to improve their intercultural competence

•

Teams improve their performance by connecting different points of view

•

Organizations increase their effectiveness.

•

Society lives in peace and harmony

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