DIGITAL SOCIETY AS A CULTURAL CONTEXT OF PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS

The results of pupillometry to the weak flash were more informative, because they describe the psychophysical status and shallow neurological diseases of a person that are less discernible during a strong flash.



DIGITAL SOCIETY AS A CULTURAL CONTEXT OF PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS
R.V. Ershova*T.M. Semina*, N. N. Varchenko**
*Department of Psychology, State University of Humanities and Social Studies (SUHSS)
** Representative Office "Sambon Precision and Electronics Co., LTD"
*Zelenaya 30, Kolomna, Russia, 140410
**ул. B. Tatarskaya, 21/6, Moscow, Russia, 115184

Abstract
This article presents the negative consequences of human development in a digital society: a deterioration in cognitive (attention, memory) and emotional abilities. The main task of the research focuses on investigation of the cultural context (digital society) and its influence to psychic development of person. Data were collected with binocular synchronous pupillometry method and Chen Internet addiction Scales test. The sample consisted of 326 students. The study show that the overuse of the Internet and other digital devices raises the threshold of sensitivity and may lead to attention disturbances such as instability, distractibility and rapid exhaustion. At the emotional level Internet addiction may be accompanied by mild depression. Overuse of the computer may lead to general nervous and mental exhaustion, fatigue and stress.
Keywords: digital society, pupillometry, Internet addiction, attention, exhaustion, stress-level.

Introduction
The modern age is often defined in many ways: Information Age, Connected Age [26] or Digital Age, Information Society [12], Media Society, Network Society [11], Knowledge Society [25] or Meaning Society [9]. Castells said that the impact of digital technologies is comparable to that of the Industrial Revolution [11]. Now digital technologies are disseminating across the worlds with high speed. In 2014 there were 277 million Internet users in the USA, 643 in China and 87 million - in Russia.
The scholars consider digital technologies to be an instrument of cultural change creating new styles of communication and interaction. This requires new competencies, new ways of forming identity, and hence new forms of personhood.
Vygotsky said, "Culture creates specific forms of behavior, modifies the activity of psychic functions, and builds new layers within the developing system of human conduct" [24, p. 155].
Digital technology is transforming life and is beginning to have a profound effect on individual psyche and the wider social milieu. Tapscott argues that technology produces a wide range of social, psychological and even political changes [22].
S. Greenfield wonders how much of the time that would have been spent walking in fresh air, playing the piano or having face-to-face conversation has now been forfeited in favor of a cyber activity, a completely new type of environment where taste, smell and touch are not stimulated [13].
The results of current research suggest that the psychological consequences of informatization are ambiguous and may include both positive and negative aspects.
The basic impact of media is on speech and thinking, feeling and knowledge, perception and cognition, esthetics, epistemology, social rules and ways the world is reflected [12].
They distinguish following impacts:
Extinction - the skills that have become unnecessary fade away. Korean scholars found that many heavy Internet users, between 10 and 19 who use their smartphones for more than seven hours a day, could not perform simple memory tasks such as recalling their own phone numbers [18].
The study conducted by Robertson [19] discovered that 25% of survey participants under the age of 30 could not remember their own home phone number without consulting their handheld device. Only 40% of those under 30 could remember family birthdays, compared to 87% of participants over the age of 50, Robertson called this phenomenon "Technology-Induced Memory Atrophy."
Cognitive disturbances. There is data on cognitive impairment in children, inclined to excessive Internet use. According to Vёssman [1] the overuse of digital tools may cause attention disorders in early preschool children, as well as the problems with reading in the senior preschool children. Turkle [23] argues that animism is a feature of the thinking process of internet-addicted people. Small, Vorgan [20] and Gentile [21] showed the reduction of the frontal lobes of the brain activity and the decrease in the cognitive control efficiency in IT users. They also discovered the symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents (8-7 years), who regularly play in computer games.
The impact of digital technology may manifest as a disturbance of social skills: for example, a form of social anxiety - The Fear of missing out [17]. Pea [15] showed that the quantity of friends in girls from 8 to 12 depends on the quantity of friends they have in social networks. The more friends the girls have in social networks the less they have in real life. Bushman and Anderson [6] discovered the disorder of empathy caused by Internet addiction (the mild violence phenomenon).
Academic achievement: Angrist and Lavi [7] noted a decline in academic performance in mathematics in fourth graders, in many subjects in senior pupils after the introduction of computers in school. Sim & all [19] showed a strong positive correlation between the duration of play in aggressive "action" or "shooter" computer games with impulsive behavior in school children and the negative correlation was also found between duration of play and academic performance.
Experts agrees that the reason for such disturbances are the early interaction with digital technologies as well as the new learning format which does not included a deep analysis of information processing and memorizing material [10, 21].
There is sufficient knowledge about the psychological characteristics of children. The complex changes in contemporary Childhood confront teachers, psychologists, educators and parents with a number of challenges [5]. The psychology of the students has been studied much less.
From 2013-2015, we conducted a comprehensive study of some aspects of the mental health (status) of students. We studied cognitive, psycho-emotional features, psychophysical condition and psychosocial characteristics, the level of Internet-addiction and ways of computer usage in students.
Hypotheses
We assumed that at the psychophysiological level the addiction to the Internet would typically be accompanied by the attention disturbances, distractibility and instability.
The Internet addicted students are characterized by emotional imbalance.
The Internet addicted students have the high level of exhaustion and stress.
At the different stages of Internet addiction formation, its physiological predictors are different.
Methods
Participants
The participants were 326 undergraduate students from State University of Humanities and Social Studies (179 females and 147 males). The mean age was 18,6 years old. Questionnaire and pupillometry were administered in class at two separate times to maximize participation in the survey. Respondents were offered extra credit for participating in the study.
The respondents were divided into 2 groups: "addicted" and "not addicted" to computers. The division was based on the normal distribution of Chen`s test results.
The internet- addicted group consisted of examinees who scored more than 58 points by CIAS. 136 people (70 girls and 66 boys) were included in the "not addicted" group. 34 people (22 girls and 12 boys) were included in the "internet-addicted" group. This is 10.1% of the total number of examinees. In the "addicted" group, there were 11.9% of the total number of female and 8.3% of the total number of male respondents.
Chen`s Addiction Scale (CIAS)
Computer addiction was studied by The Russian adaptation of Chen`s Addiction Scale (CIAS) adapted by Feklisova and Malygin (2011). CIAS is a 26-item self-report measurement scored on a 4-point Likert scale (Chen et al., 2003).
The CIAS consists of five subscales: Symptom of compulsive use (Sym-C), Symptom of withdrawal (Sym-W), Symptom of tolerance (Sym-T) Symptoms of Internet addiction, Scale of interpersonal and health-related problems (RP-IH) and Time management problems scale (RP-TM). The minimum score of the CIAS is 26 and the maximum is 104, respectively. Higher scores indicate increased severity of addiction to Internet activity.
We also assessed the demographic background and types of Internet use.
Pupillography
The pupillography was performed with the usage of "Sambon Stress and Soul" (SSaS) pupillometer, developed by the South Korean company "Sambon Precision and Electronics Co., LTD". That allows the physiological and psychological characteristics of the subject to be determined by the reaction of the pupil to light flash. It is known that the pupillography method (registration and analysis of a pupillary reflex - pupil reaction for light stimulus) may be used to find dependence of an examinee`s physical conditions and characteristics of his or her vegetative nervous system's activity, for example reactivity, speed of reaction, overall stamina, restoration ability of an organism after load (Minoru Nakayama et al., 2004).
Pupillography testing consists of:
synchronous video registration of pupil reactions for supraliminal light stimulus (flash more bright than minimal for photoreaction) of both eyes;
automatic processing of eye images and pupillogram building;
computing of pupillographic parameters;
interpretation of results.
Pupillograms are registered three times during the test. First and second registrations are made with a light stimulus of 3 LUX intensity and a 10 microseconds duration (weak flash). Third light stimulus has an intensity of 145 LUX and a duration of 30 microseconds (strong flash). The duration of each registration is two and a half seconds (2,5). The flash is set off simultaneously for both eyes. Pupillogram's registration of both eyes is done synchronously with an accuracy of no more than 200 microseconds. The overall time of the procedure is about 3 minutes.
The method of "SSaS" is based on the analysis of three basic phases of pupillary reaction (fig.1):
1. Latent period: the time between the moment of the light stimulation and the start of the pupil constriction.
2. The phase of pupil constriction, which reflects the condition of the parasympathetic nervous system.
3. The restoration phase, which reflects the condition of the sympathetic nervous system.

Figure 1. Pupillogram and its diagnostic criteria
Fig. 1 shows the following coordinates: x-axis (t) – time, axis of ordinates (R) - pupil size.
The figure denotes:
Param. 1 (ALat) - initial pupil size.
Param. 2 (%Contr) - reaction amplitude, measured as a constriction of pupil in percents relative to initial pupil size.
Param. 3 (TLat) - duration of latent period of pupil constriction, i.e. time elapsed from light flash till the start of pupil reaction. It is measured in milliseconds.
Param. 4 (Para) - duration of parasympathetic
Param. 5 (Plateau) - duration of latent period of recovery, time from stopping constriction till starting dilation. This is the width of the plateau. This value as well as tLat phase of pupil reaction characterizes agility of neural processes, i.e. speed of switching between excitation and inhibition. .
Param. 6 (Symp) - duration of control part of sympathetic phase of pupil reaction i.e. time passed from minimal point. Duration is 1167 msec. In the end point of control part the restoration criteria (Cr70) is calculated.
Param. 7 (Cr70) - value of pupil size reconstruction at the fixed time 1167 msec from point of minimum.
Param. 8 (Wide) - time measured from point of half constriction of pupil size to same radius of restoration.
Param. 9 (UgLat) - criterion of pupil constriction activity, which is an angle between the ordinate axis and direction from minimum to start point of constriction.
Param. 10 (tend_fastSpeedCnst) - end of fast speed of constriction period.
Param. 11 (tend_constSpeedCnst) - end of constant speed constriction period.
Param. 12 (tend_Contr) - end of constriction period.
In most cases crook of pupillometric curve in restoration phase of pupil reaction presents:
Param. 13 (tRstrCrookStart) - time difference between minimal pupil radius and crook beginning.
Param. 14 (tRstrCrookCenter) - time difference between minimal pupil radius and crook center.
Param. 15 (tRstrCrookEnd) - time difference between minimal pupil radius and crook end.
Param.16 (Hippus) - the parameter evaluates the excitement, psycho-emotional instability.
Results
The results of computer usage are presented in the table 1.
Table 1
Differences in computer usage ("addicted"/ "not-addicted" students)

To confirm hypothesis №1, we compared the results of pupillometry in two groups: the internet-addicted and not addicted students with t-test (independent by groups).
The significant differences between two groups were found at 14 out of 16 pupillography parameters for a weak flash (the pupil reaction to the weak flash gives an indication of the sensitivity of the nervous system).
The most informative are nine of them: these are parameters № 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16 (table 2). They characterize the features of both parasympathetic and sympathetic phase of the pupil reaction.
Table 2
Differences in pupil reaction to weak and strong flashes between "addicted" and "not-addicted"to the Internet students (Independent-Samples t-test)

The sufficient reaction force corresponding to the age norm indicates a low threshold of sensitivity, a high receptivity to weak signals. It is a main condition needed for effective learning.
 Data analysis has shown that the following features characterize the pupil reaction to the weak flash in the addicted group: a longer time and faster speed of the pupil constriction. The pupil reaction in the addicted group is shallow and the time of transition from constriction into restoration is higher in comparison with the not-addicted students. The decline in the parameter 15 indicates the total depletion of resources and exhaustion in the internet-addicted group. The percentage of pupil recovery after light flash in the internet-addicted group is less than in the independent group that also confirms our hypothesis. The pupil in this group was unable to recover as fully as those in not-addicted group, therefore confirming our hypothesis №3.
The parameter 16 indicates the emotional response to the light stimulation, the level of excitement and anxiety. In the not-addicted group, this parameter for the weak flash is higher than in internet-addicted students. They perceive the insignificant stimulus as a full-fledged stimulus, whereas the dependent students do not give any emotional response to external stimulation.
The first weak flash in a pupillometry method is considered a kind of pre-stimulation of the pupil system, preparation for a strong stimulation. Seeing as that the Internet-addicted students have extensive experience of interaction with digital devices (flashing computer screen), their pupillometric system is more trained and prepared, that is why the internet-addicted students don`t perceive a weak flash as a significant signal. We can conclude that the threshold of sensitivity in the internet-addicted students is higher than the threshold in the not-addicted students. It means that it is more difficult for them to concentrate and keep their attention on the slight stimulus and uninteresting information. Moreover, their attention, due to the general exhaustion of the nervous system is unstable. Whereas the independent students, react fully, deeply and emotionally to a weak stimulation.
Interesting results have been shown due to the strong flash. As well as with for weak flash, the internet-addicted students spent more time at the start of the pupil reaction, the phase of constriction was completed faster than in not-addicted group. As previously noted with weak flash the trend of superficial reaction and lower restoration of the pupil after stress effect remained the same. As for a weak flash, lower rates of variables №13, 14, 15 in internet-addicted students indicated that they had a higher degree of tiredness. Thus in the habitual stimulus environment the nervous system of the internet-addicted students began to react more sharply and more quickly but not deeply. Signs of tiredness and exhaustion are stored for a strong flash. Higher rates in the parameter №16 indicate higher level of excitement in the not-addicted students, whereas for the internet-addicted the situation of hyper stimulation is habitual.
The values of complex variables such as exhaustion, activity and stress confirmed, once again, our hypothesis № 3 about the general exhaustion of nervous system in the Internet addicted students (table 3).
Table 3
Levels of complex variables in "addicted" and "not-addicted" groups


Thus, this study revealed the following features in internet-addicted students:
1. On a psychological level the combination of insensitivity to weak stimulation, little depth of reaction and signs of exhaustion in the internet- addicted students means that they find it difficult to attract and retain their attention, they need more time to be included in the work, and the process of their attention and concentration could be short-term, volatile and shallow. It is particularly difficult to attract and retain the attention of the stimulation of low power. Thus, the first part of our hypothesis was confirmed.
2. The hypothesis regarding emotional instability of internet-addicted students was confirmed partially. On the contrary they showed the greater emotional stability, lack of excitement during the reaction to an unexpected stimulation. At the same time, the signs of depression were found in this group with the strong flash.
3. Exhaustion, stress and tiredness are integral features of the Internet-addicted students.
The correlation analysis was used to prove the Hypothesis №4.
The correlation analysis showed that the pupillometry parameters (the results of pupillometry to the weak flash) of internet-addicted students were more closely associated with the addiction scales (37 relationships — for the internet-addicted group and 21 relationships — for the not-addicted students). There were only three common correlations in both groups. Thus, at the different stages of addiction formation the physiological predictors are different.
Two pupillometric parameters: №7 and №16 were the most closely connected with the addiction scales. The parameter №7 (indicating the degree of exhaustion of the nervous system) - had a negative correlation with all addiction scales. The overuse of computer and other digital devices may lead to a decrease in resources and an exhaustion of the nervous system, which was fixed during pupillography.
The second parameter №16 - Hippus gives an indication of the excitement and emotional instability of a person. In internet-addicted students high rates on Hippus were combined with high scores on the compulsive use scale, tolerance, the scale of interpersonal and health-related problems and time management scale.
Compulsiveness as an indicator of the Internet addiction on the level of pupillometry appears as a wider pupil size at the start of reaction, general exhaustion and excitement.
A withdrawal symptom (anxiety, agitation, obsessive thoughts about what is happening on the Internet) is seen as a wider pupil size at the start, a shortened latent period before the pupil constriction, slackness of reaction and emotional instability.
High scores on a Tolerance scale in the internet-addicted group are connected with exhaustion, emotional instability and anxiety.
The interpersonal and health-related problems scale correlates with a high level of exhaustion, fatigue, slack reaction and emotional instability.
Students who have problems with time management are characterized by a shorter latent period before the response to the weak flash, durability of reaction connected to high amplitude of the pupil constriction, impulsiveness, exhaustion, emotional instability and shorter period of acceleration speed of constriction.
The total Internet addiction in pupillometry parameters is manifested as an increased width of the pupil, emotional instability, exhaustion, slack reactions, combined with the depth of reaction and impetuosity (activity of reaction).
At the strong flash the number of correlations between the scales of Internet addiction and pupillometry parameters in the internet-addicted group reduced to 23, as opposed to the not-addicted group where the number of correlations increased to 41. Eleven common correlations were found. The reduced specificity of the relationships between the internet-addiction scales and pupillometric parameters in both groups can be explained by the fact that a strong flash erases irrelevant, weak symptoms and allows for detection of more serious diseases.
At the strong flash, the scales of the interpersonal and health-related problems and compulsiveness are more closely connected with pupillometric parameters in internet-addicted students.
The scale of the interpersonal and health-related problems in the internet-addicted group appears as a weak pupil reaction, accompanied by a rapid depletion.
Compulsiveness at a psycho-physiological level is revealed as a slackness and slowness of pupillary reaction during the phase of constriction.
Conclusion
The study led to the following conclusions:
The overuse of the Internet and other digital devices raises the threshold of sensitivity and may lead to attention disturbances such as instability, distractibility and rapid exhaustion.
At the emotional level Internet addiction may be accompanied by mild depression.
Overuse of the computer may lead to general nervous and mental exhaustion, fatigue and stress.
Of course, the result of our study may be explained not only by digital environment impact but also by "fatigue of genes", and medicalization of children population. We know that 20% of Russian children have minimal brain dysfunction and 26.5% -have disharmonious development (psychopathy) [5].
Obviously, the psychological characteristics that we have described are the only causes of significant reduction in the effectiveness of the learning process. It requires teachers to develop the new technologies for instructing students.
The training of these students has to consist of different types of tasks: all information that has to be learnt should be bright and attractive. It is necessary to keep in mind that Internet-addicted students cannot work for a long time on tasks of high complexity furthermore the efficiency of mastering the subjects may be low because of exhaustion and stress. In fact, all the information has to be presented like a "clip": brightly, quickly and shallowly. In his article "Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants" Marc Prensky references this exact new methodology of training: "Digital Natives are used to receiving information really fast. They like to parallel process and multi-task. They prefer their graphics before their text rather than the opposite. They prefer random access (like hypertext). They function best when networked. They thrive on instant gratification and frequent rewards. They prefer games to "serious" work. They have little patience for lectures, step-by-step logic, and "tell-test" instruction. Often from the Natives point of view, their Digital Immigrant instructors make their education not worth paying attention to compared to everything else they experience – and then they blame them for not paying attention! My own preference for teaching Digital Natives is to invent computer games to do the job, even for the most serious content" [16, p.5].
The obtained data once again shows the need for psychological support of the learning process of students in high school, which has to include the following: individual or group psychological assessment, help to understand and take control of their own lives and behavior, help with arranging their priorities in life and rational combination of study and leisure time.
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ЦИФРОВОЕ ОБЩЕСТВО КАК КУЛЬТУРНЫЙ КОНТЕКСТ ПСИХИЧЕСКОГО РАЗВИТИЯ СТУДЕНТОВ

Р. В. Ершова*, Т.М. Семина*, Н.Н. Варченко**
*Кафедра психологии, Государственный социально-гуманитарный университет
**Представительство компании «Самбон Пресижн и Электроникс ЛТД»
* Зеленая, 30, Коломна, Россия, 140411
** Большая Татарская, Москва, Россия, 115184
Аннотация
В статье анализируются негативные последствия влияния цифрового общества на психическое развитие человека, проявляющиеся через нарушения в когнитивной, эмоциональной сферах. Главной целью нашего исследования было изучение специфики влияния цифрового контекста на психическое развитие личности. В исследовании участвовали 326 студентов. Методом исследования были бинокулярная синхронная пупиллометрия, тест Интернет-зависимости (Чен). Исследование показало, что чрезмерное использование компьютера и других цифровых устройств повышает порог чувствительности, и может приводить к расстройствам внимания: неустойчивость, сложность концентрации, быстрое истощение. На эмоциональном уровне интернет зависимость может сопровождаться легким депрессивным состоянием, чрезмерное использование электронных устройств приводит к общему истощению нервной системы, усталости и стрессу.
Ключевые слова: цифровое общество, пупиллометрия, интернет-зависимость, внимание, истощение, уровень стресса.