Table of Contents A - Identification of the Area 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Name of the proposed Geopark Location of the proposed Geopark Surface area, physical and human geography characteristics of the proposed Geopark Organization in charge and management structure (description, function and organigram) of the proposed Geopark Application contact person (name, position, tel./fax, e-mail)
B - Geological Heritage 1. 2. 3. 4.
General geological description of the proposed Geopark Listing and description of geological sites within the proposed Geopark Details on the interest of these sites in terms of their international, national, regional or local value (for example scientific, educational, aesthetic) Listing and description of other sites of natural, cultural and intangible heritage interest and how they are related to the geological sites and how they are integrated into the proposed Geopark
C - Geoconservation 1. 2. 3.
Current or potential pressure on the proposed Geopark Current status in terms of protection of geological sites within the proposed Geopark Data on the management and maintenance of all heritage sites (geological and non-geological).
D - Economic Activity & Business Plan (including detailed financial information) 1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
Economic activity in the proposed Geopark Existing and planned facilities for the proposed Geopark (e.g. geo-education, geo-tourism, tourism infrastructure etc) Analysis of geotourism potential of the proposed Geopark Overview and policies for the sustainable development of: - geo-tourism and economy - geo-education - geo-heritage Please include examples illustrating activities in these sectors Policies for, and examples of, community empowerment (involvement and consultation) in the proposed Geopark Policies for, and examples of, public and stakeholder awareness in the pro posed Geopark.
E - Interest and Arguments for joining the GGN
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A - Identification of the Area 1. Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua: ¨ Name of the proposed Geopark
T
he Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua was conceived in 2010 in a different format from the one that is being presented now. The name was originally chosen because it is the Volcano Tungurahua that has been the shaping force in the history and everyday life of the five cantons now involved, Baños de Agua Santa, Pelileo, Patate, Penipe and Guano. Tungurahua means “Throat of Fire” in Quichua, a reflection on the fact that it has been sporadically active over the last centuries and in the 21st, since 2010 uninterruptedly. With the inclusion of Guano and Penipe into the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua, both cantons within the neighbouring province of Chimborazo, however, the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua now also includes the majestic Chimborazo (Taita Chimborazo, the major protective force in the area, with its Quichua name meaning “Burning Snow” reflecting the fact that it is the closest place to the sun on Earth), together with the volcanoes, El Altar, Carihuairazo, Huisli, Mulmul and Igualata within its territory, with Sangay nearby. Therefore, for the proposal, it has been decided to maintain the original name but to hold a vote in the ongoing socialisation
process among residents and tourists, for them to choose between two options. The first would be to respect the name as it stands since it reflects the overriding presence of Tungurahua and the consequences of living in the presence of a live volcano. This would emphasize the “geology” of the “geopark”. The second would be to use the name Project Geopark Mama Tungurahua to underscore the world vision of the natives who consider that Mama Tungurahua and Taita Chimborazo are a couple, and that Carihuairazo and El Altar, much diminished over time in size as the result of explosive processes, are the frustrated lovers of the colossal Tungurahua, spent and extinct on account of losing the battle for her affections. This name would emphasize the cultural narrative of the Pacha Mama and Andean culture, the intangible geological heritage. The ongoing participative process is designed to make people identify more closely with the Project Geopark as they are responsible for its “baptism” and protection.
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2. Location of the proposed Geopark
P
roject Geopark Volcano Tungurahua in Ecuador (00º55’00 and 01º34 S. 78º06’51” and 78º31’60”W) covers cantons within the provinces of Tungurahua and Chimborazo, both of which are named after the most important volcanoes in their area. Patate, San Pedro de Pelileo and Baños de Agua Santa belong to Tungurahua, (Tungurahua, 5,023 masl) and Guano and Penipe are in the province of Chimborazo, also home to the volcano of the same name (Chimborazo at 6,310masl, the closest point to the sun on Earth) together with El Altar (extinct, standing at 5,320masl) and Carihuairazo (likewise extinct and standing at 5,102msnm). Tungurahua and Chimborazo, to the Southwest of the capital, Quito, are two of the smallest of the 24 provinces of Ecuador, with natural protected areas representing roughly half of the total extension of both provinces. Parts of the National Parks Sangay (5,178 km2 and a World Heritage site) and Llanganates (2,197km2) are included within the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua. The Chimborazo Wildlife Reserve (500km2) shared over the provinces of Chimborazo, Tungurahua and Bolívar, and with altitudes ranging from 3,800 to 6,310masl, designed to reintroduce the vicuña and to protect other rare fauna is also within the Project Geopark and can be visited as part of the train ride that stops at Urbina (Guano) en route to the Devil’s Nose. The volcano Tungurahua, Mama Tungurahua (01º28’S,78º27’W) forms part of the Eastern Cordillera (also known as the Royal Cordillera) of the Ecuadorian Andes. It stands 35 kilometres behind the volcanic front of the Western Cordillera where Chimborazo, Taita Chimborazo (01º46’4’’S, 78º81’5’’W) towers as the southernmost anchor point of this mountain range in Ecuador. Tungurahua, together with the other active volcanoes of Cotopaxi, Sangay, Antisana and Cayambe, defines the Eastern Cordillera. Tungurahua is characterised by its steep sides and small summit glacier. Its uninterrupted activity since 2010, with an earlier volcanic episode in 2006, means that Tungurahua shapes the day-to-day activities and welfare of the people in the surroundings.
3. Surface area, physical and human geography characteristics of the proposed Geopark
T
he total surface area of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua is 2,427 km2. The cantons included in the province of Tungurahua are among the
most densely populated areas in the whole of Ecuador (170/km2) even factoring for the massive emigration, especially among the young, due to the uninterrupted activity of Mama Tungurahua since 2010. The province of Tungurahua itself covers a total area of 3,386.25 km2 in the central part of Ecuador. The province is governed by a Prefect who has been re-elected by popular demand for the fourth successive time to said post, thereby affording great stability to the structural policies undertaken in the areas of water resources, employment and people’s general welfare. The province of Chimborazo, in the central Inter-Andean region, is larger (6,500 km2) than Tungurahua and has a lower density of population therefore (97/ km2) although it still represents the ninth most densely populated province in Ecuador. The average temperatures in the whole of the area of the Project Geopark at normal altitudes for the region (around 2,500masl) fluctuate between a daytime 13º and 22ºC with cooler temperatures at night. Obviously, at higher elevations, temperatures descend substantially and the volcanic peaks are covered with snow, all the year round. The morphology of the area is characterised by its volcanic origins and activity, with semi-arid conditions prevailing in the inter-Andean depression, receiving on average 500mm annual rainfall. This is due to the fact that the rainfall tends to hit the high slopes of the volcanoes to the East and West, rarely making it through to the Inter-Andean Depression. The eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Cordillera) receive annual amounts of rainfall around 3,000mm, the result of the influx of moist air from the Amazon basin (Garreaud, 2009). This influx of moist air also causes the main attractions, the volcanoes Tungurahua and Chimborazo, to be shrouded in mist a large part of the time. This led the British explorer and scientist, Whymper to comment of Chimborazo: “ It will seem incredible that we should have approached so closely to Chimborazo without obtaining a glimpse of it. Prescott says it affords a magnificent prospect to the mariner on the Pacific Ocean. It was invisible from the Pacific, and also at Guayaquil, at Bodegas, Tambo Gobierno and Guaranda, though at all these places we were informed that it might, could, or should be seen; and upon the 19th, if we had not been aware that we actually touched the lower slopes, we might have gone past it without entertaining a suspicion that we were underneath a mountain of first-class magnitude, notably loftier than anything in its vicinity.” In terms of land use, the high mountains are characterised by moorlands (páramos) of renowned environmental and hydrological value (Célleri & Feven, 2009). The
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Chimborazo Wildlife Reserve, created in 1987 to specifically protect the llamas, alpacas and endangered vicunas (a controlled repopulation) that now abound, domesticated, in this area, was, in part, an effort to support indigenous populations in their traditional agricultural lifestyles but also to protect the moorlands. The landscape of the high Andean paramo (moorland) is the natural home of the llamas, alpaca and vicuña; they have no trouble chewing the tough mountain grasses and their wonderfully thick fur enables them to deal with the cold climate. The animals are able to withstand winds of up to 180km/h, while the vicuñas (originally from Peru and Chile) need very little water and can survive in desert-like conditions. Their evolution has taken place in concert with the paramo itself; while the sharp hooves of cattle damage the low plants, the “cushioned” feet of these South American animals of the camel family protect the ground, conserving the precious water stored beneath the soil. Their reintroduction, therefore, has been crucial for the conservation of the Reserve and for other animals such as the Andean fox, the paramo deer, and birds such as the highly endangered condor, the white tipped swift and the Ecuadorian hillstar hummingbird. The main activity of the two provinces is agriculture thanks to the fertile ground for cultivation in the Inter-Andean Depression, the result of the alluvial fans and contemporaneous fluvial and volcanic deposits (Winkler et al. 2005). Indeed, most of the national fruit production originates here in this area. The River Patate, which is the main river in the area, flows through the valley on its way to the Amazon. Most of the parishes of the cantons are, therefore, rural, with the exception made normally of the capital city or head (cabecera) of the canton. The main problem faced at present, is poverty, with levels over the already high national percentage (that is earning less than the NBI, Basic National Income) that still stands at 60.05%. Patate, for example, offers an average of 73.8% with none of its parishes, not even the head city Patate (64.8%) below the national average. As a result of this poverty and the threats posed to physical welfare by the volcano, there has been a dramatic drop in the population due to falling birth rates and emigration. The population is mostly mestizo (60%) with a 32% component of native peoples, most of which are centred round Ambato (the Tomabelas, Chibuleos and Quisapinchas) with only the Salasakas based in San Pedro de Pelileo, inside the immediate confines of the Project Geopark. The native people, with the exception of the Quisapinchas who make their living from leatherwork
and eco-tourism, earn their livelihoods, such as they are, from husbandry, agriculture and handicrafts (basically weaving textiles and basketry/hat-making). Most of the native groups speak Quichua and Spanish.
A
lthough the origin of the Chibuleos and the Tomabelas are known (direct descendents of the Panzaleos and Tomabelas from Cajamarca) together with the Quisapinchas (descendents of the Panzaleos originally hailing from Machachi and descendents of the Puruwas of Chimborazo), the Salasakas maintain a dispute as to their origins, with some claiming they are descendents of the mitimaes or emigrants from Cuzco, Nazca and Bolivia while others claim they are descendents of the Puruwas, a civilisation renowned for its skilful crafting of gold jewellery and ornate earthenware. Despite their rich culture and history or myths (impossible to discern which is which before the Conquest since such chronicles as exist were written by the Spanish conquerors), the native people are distinguished only by their dress in the everyday life of the area, with their cultures, cosmologies and living conditions hardly fore-fronted except in the handicraft. They have also been much undermined by foreign influences, emigra-
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tion and remittances, besides new religious incursions. It is known that the original peoples, the Hambatus (Tungurahua) and the Puruwas (Chimborazo) adored the sun (Taita Inti-Father Sun) and the moon (Mama Killa – Mother Moon) together with the snow-topped mountains that ensured they were kept supplied with water, as is still the case to this day. The hills (urkus), volcanoes and snow-capped mountains were all places of devotion (huacas) and of spiritual and magic experiences. The ridges, gorges and ravines (urku waiku), however, were feared because they were imagined to be the dwelling –place of the supay or devils whilst also being the place for contagion of “mal aire” (malaria) or a curse that brought with it illnesses and could even produce death. Carihuairazo, the volcano only 10 km distant from Chimborazo and formerly connected to it by glaciers, whose name means “icy male wind” in Quichua, is one of these very places. To this day, the area around the ice mines is considered to have “bad energy”. Although still afflicted by icy cold winds, the ice has retreated here on Carihuairazo as elsewhere.
T
he world vision of the Salasakas talks of the supreme god, Wiracocha who produced a primitive world of plants, animals and human beings. However, he was so angered by their misdeeds that he emerged from Lake Titicaca, created a flood and converted the primitive men into rocks. After creating the Hanan Pacha (the heavens), the Kay Pacha (the earth and the here and now) and the Uqu Pacha (the underworld), that together constitute the Pacha Mama or known universe, a new race of beings emerged from the caves, lakes and waterfalls, peopling the earth. This is a version of the Andean mythology mainly of the Chavín and Tiwanaku cultures whereby Wiracocha is the supreme creator and all the families or clans (ayllus) are descended from different pacarinas (caves). Wiracocha was accompanied by a golden hummingbird, the Corequenque that according to legend was the messenger between these different spheres (much in the same way as King Soloman was accompanied, according to the Bible, by the hoopoe bird, the messenger between the worlds of the living and the dead). The Ruta Wiracocha, perhaps better known as the Qhapaq Ñan, recognised as World Heritage in 2014 by UNESCO, passes through the territory of Tungurahua and Chimborazo. Guano is the canton of the five in the Project Geopark configuration that is named on the Qhapaq Ñan. The chinkana, the underground tunnel of secret knowledge fabled to run below the Qhapaq Ñan, links all the important sacred sites along the diagonal energy lines or ceques of the Tawantinsuyu or kingdom of the Incas. These are based on geodesic measurements (the Andean Unit) that prove that the ancient civilisations used geodesics 5,125 years before La Condamine. Despite these close links to the earth and the harmony with the Pacha Mama, there is much that has to be done in the way of water treatment and sewage to improve the environmental quality, much affected by fallout of volcanic ash and acid rain. Many of the sacred places are also left in abandon, strewn with rubbish. TIC coverage is deficient, although much has been done to remedy this by the Correa government with Info-points in rural areas. Functional literacy levels among the older generations, however, are almost non-existent though thanks to the younger generations, smart phones, network distance learning systems and the support of the two Prefectures, things are moving fast. Architectural coherence and traditional buildings have been lost due to the influence of remittances and perceived artistic values and graffiti is a problem as it is in many places throughout the world.
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The mingas also seem less organised on a spontaneous basis than in the Northern Andes region in Ecuador where the native people predominate. However, concerted efforts already exist within the Project Geopark territory to attend these problems. Patate has recently installed free wi-fi for all in the city centre and steps have been taken (by the CELEC social outreach programme at Agoyán power station) to channel street painting, for example, in a positive direction. To the effects of the Project Geopark, wifi coverage is essential with media-blind areas posing severe challenges both from the perspective of physical safety and emergencies and from the point of view of ensuring viable commercial ventures. Hazard control is at present managed by a whole network of volunteer vigías, who work with the National Institute of Geophysics (IGEPN) on a regular basis to monitor changes in the activity of Tungurahua on a 7-24 schedule. The other main source of income within the Project Geopark is tourism, mainly centred on Baños de Agua Santa. This tourism is highly seasonal and relies very heavily on both Chimborazo and Tungurahua (the former for hiking and biking, the latter for its dramatic scenic effect and related adventure tourism products) for its pulling power.
tional holidays and long weekends, There is also a limited supply of more sophisticated, almost too classy and expensive, accommodation on offer (the Run-Tun perched up high on the rock-face has the most spectacular views around and the Sangay Spa is the downtown equivalent) but largely speaking, what is on offer in the way of lodgings is not of a standard that invites more than a few nights’ stay en route down to the Amazon. There is, however, excellent revamped Hacienda accommodation on offer in Patate and potential in Penipe, something that the Project Geopark is designed to highlight and enhance. Baños’ tourism dealers tend to be focused on the city centre itself though their activities take them elsewhere into the rural areas. However, although 90% of the activity is tourist, most of the rural areas do not enjoy any income from tourism, not even from seeing their produce inserted into the value chain. This is something that the Project Geopark is also designed to address: better spreading of tourism income over a larger resource base and revalorisation of local products through insertion into the tourist value chain. Baños is the only destination of the five actually highlighted in the Lonely Planet Guide although described as slightly rundown. Tungurahua is known as the land of opportunities and Baños as the doorway onto El Dorado. Indeed, most of the tourism operator activity is actually directed at sending people elsewhere, with the city one of the few places to contract guided tours to the Amazon. This is also the route that was pursued by Orellana and others in search Atahualpa’s Gold. Atahualpa, the last Inca Emperor of Ecuador, (son of a Puruwa princess, Duchicela), was captured by the Spaniard, Pizarro, who threatened to kill him should he not be paid a high ransom (a roomful) in gold for his freedom. Atahualpa ordered his general Rumiñahui (Stone-face) to pay the ransom but the Spaniard became impatient and ordered Atahualpa’s death. When he heard of his leader’s assassination at the hands of the enemy, Rumiñahui is said to have buried the gold, some say in a deep cave, others in a deep magic lake in Llanganates. Rumiñahui was from the area and knew how impenetrable Llanganates was. To this day, explorers continue to search for Atahualpa’s gold. The legend stands that whosoever is so brave as to sleep all night on the sacred rock of Punta Rumi (near Pelileo) will dream of the pathway to the gold.
The original attraction in Baños de Agua Santa as the name suggests were the “holy waters” that are still considered to be, like Lourdes, miraculous in their healing powers. Nowadays, the main clientele of Baños, however, is young and offbeat, out for a fun weekend, quadding, zip-lining, rock-climbing, rappel, rafting and late-night partying. Accommodation is accordingly informal and in short supply, leading to total collapse of the resort on naProject Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
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T
he great Taita Chimborazo has also excited the imaginations of adventurers for centuries, the most important of which are perhaps Humboldt, Darwin and some time later, Whymper. In more contemporary times, the Last Ice Merchant from Guano, who collects ice on a daily basis from Chimborazo’s glaciers to make the famous “helados de paila” was projected to world fame thanks to the winning documentary made of his daily toils. Baltazar Ushca’s route, as guided by the man himself, figures on the routes within the Project Geopark in an attempt to further dignify and compensate his work and traditional endurance. Rocks, volcanoes, glaciers and minerals, weaving, alpaca, textiles and textures are, therefore, the context and text of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua, as yet not duly exploited, interpreted nor valued through responsible tourismo produce sustainable quality of life for the traditional populations, much less for the future generations. This concerted bid on the part of the five GADs, joined together as a Mancomunidad (Commonwealth) committed to the common goal of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua is designed to change this situation. They have understood that the geopark framework promoting an enhanced knowledge of geodiversity is designed to privilege people, the planet, prosperity, peace and partnership, the objective of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the UN in place post 2015.
4. Organization in charge an management structure This project was originally presented as a Presidential Commitment in 2010, personally assumed, from the point of view of investment, by
the President Rafael Correa. To guarantee said funding, the project is to be presented by December 2015. However, given that a Geopark should be born from the bottom-upwards, from the civil society, on their demand, and with their support, its has taken time and energy to move beyond this important political commitment to a valid structure that fulfils the long-term needs of the civil society. For that reason, although an initial bid was formally established some years back with UNESCO, it is only now that the process of socialization is effectively taking place, to ensure that co-management, community participation in decision-making and the general support required for sustainable development are a reality. There is a structured plan for each area of major importance: geo-conservation, geo-education (including hazard control for tourists and residents alike) and participatory responsible geo-tourism, based on preservation and promotion of geo-diversity and identity. The Geo-Park structure is a new development in Ecuador (as it is in most of Latin America) and, therefore, will run with an interim structure for 18 months until laws such as the Joint Venture law and the Bill to included Geo-Conservation explicitly in the Constitution (currently in negotiation in the National Congress) are passed and implemented.
T
he final structure consists of an initial Steering Commission in the shape of a Mancomunidad (Commonwealth) of the appointed representatives on the five Canton councils (five votes), and a pooled budget with proportionate quotas depending upon current tax income. This Mancomunidad has as its mandate to inform and consult all the parishes of the Canton before representing them first on the GAD (Autonomous Decentralised Government) canton council and then on the Project Geopark Management Board. The other members of the Project Geopark Management Committee will be elected representatives of the private business sector (one vote), elected members of the indigenous communities and the civil society in general (one vote) plus representatives of the main State Ministries involved to guarantee alignment with budgets and policies at a national level (Tourism, Environment, Planning and Development, Culture and Education) (one vote). The two Prefectures or their delegates will also be represented (one vote each). The MEER (Ministry of Electricity and Renewable EnerProject Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
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gy) and CELEC, (Hydroelectric Station at Agoyán) as proposing bodies, will also play a decisive role on the Project Geopark Management Committee (one vote). The resident geologist or her delegates will also be permanent members of the General Management Board (one vote). The Management Committee at this stage should be as transparent and agile a body as possible and encourage proposals from the general public. Within the structure of the Revolución Ciudadana, each of the parishes in the various cantons has its own GAD. It is the task of each of the elected representatives of the Cantonal GAD to ensure that all activities and planned decisions are circulated for their analysis and approval by the parishes previous to the general Management Committee meetings. This is central to the co-management required for sustainable and responsible development. The Mancomunidad has worked closely with the MEER through the agency of CELEC, especially through the social and environmental outreach department of the same. It is considered that both the MEER and CELEC should have a permanent role on the Geopark Management Committee over the next five years to guarantee the energy, environmental and social programmes required to sustainably “green” the Project Geopark. It has also worked closely with the Ministry of Tourism (Coordination Zone 3) who should continue to be represented on the Management Committee since their intervention (maps, signposting, geoconservation, statistics, control of responsible investment and safety) is essential to the long-term success of the venture. This is a process where the two Prefects (Tungurahua and Chimborazo) must also collaborate through designated representatives to the Project Geopark Management Committee to ensure transport, security and telecommunications within the area. They can also ensure that overlapping investment efforts are not made and link the Project Geopark activities into their current agendas (such as is the case of the Trust Fund for the Protection of Moorlands and the Eradication of Poverty). The geological identification, structuring of geo-routes, inventory and conservation originally handled by the IGEPN together with the local volunteer control groups, safety experts on the town councils and general State security coordination in the various Ministries, while still in place, has been, and will be supervised by the resident geologist who has worked actively with the Project Geopark, Liliana Troncoso MSc. She will engage the students of Earth Sciences in the various University Master and Degree courses at a national (and international network) level to participate in placement studies and permanent geological interpretation of the area. This long-term practical and academic geological commitment to the Geopark will ensure the zoning, hazard control and new geo-route/geo-education activities required for responsible and sustainable development, planned with the other members of the interdisciplinary Project Geopark team. As none of the cantons can produce revenue from activities undertaken under Ecuadorian law and given that access to Nature also is guaranteed free of charge under the Constitution, the actual running of the Geopark as a responsible business venture producing direct income for the local businesses and people will be devolved upon a joint venture DMO (Destination Management Organisation), appointed by the General Management CommiProject Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
ttee and accountable to the same. The Destination Management Organisation is designed to fulfil four key strategic objectives (Buhalis, 2000): (1) To improve the long-term prosperity and quality of life of the local population; (2) to make the customers happy by maximising their level of satisfaction through quality products and services; (3) to make maximum profitability for local businesses, maximising multiplier effects and improving the local tourism value chain; and (4) to strike a sustainable balance between economic benefits and socio-cultural and environmental preservation and protection. The main purpose of the DMO is to create a master management plan together with the stakeholders and a marketing strategy for the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua on a yearly basis (within a logical matrix 5-year framework). It should act at the orders of the General Management Committee to catalyse and facilitate the realisation of responsible geotourism, geoconservation and geoeducation, while promoting sustainable activities and investment ((proportionate local employment, training and promotion and CSR among others). It should, therefore, consist of a Director/Geopark Community Coordinator (responsible for economic and legal aspects of business development and quality geodiversity control, coordination of the annual development plans, five year business plan, employment, research and community transfer of knowhow), the Geopark Community Interpretation and Communications coordinator (responsible for internal coordination of the multidisciplinary teams, design of new products and events aimed at promoting intercultural geo-heritage interpretation and education) and the Geopark
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Outreach Coordinator (responsible for the web, liaising with the other members of the GGN, establishing projects and programmes and for the marketing of products to the Tour operators and through OTAs and other distribution channels). The resident geologist is also a permanent member of the DMO. Until such time as the DMO’s format is decided upon (Public Company, Joint Venture), it is considered that said DMO should be formed by the constituent members of the Mancomunidad together with the MEER in the shape of CELEC. The DMO, like the Management Committee, will have the informed assessment of three consultant commissions, the first devoted to Geo-science and Education, the second to Responsible Tourism Interpretation, IT, Investment and Business Innovation, and a third responsible for Community Representation and Preservation/ Promotion of Identity and Ancestral Knowledge. To ensure safety and control over the business generated on-site (thereby avoiding unwanted intrusion by, and leakage to unofficial tour operators), the tour packages and activities will all be scheduled and purchased (via pre-paid card or smart-phone charge) through OTAs and the Project Geopark offices scattered over the park. There should be distribution of security tracking devices (included in the price) to allow for emergency evacuations and early warning systems in case of unexpected volcanic events. The data produced with respect to movements around attractions together with satisfaction rates of products, service and interpretation, will be fed back by the DMO to MINTUR (Coordinación Zonal 3) and to the GADs, offering valuable information with respect to modification of present, and design of future strategies.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE GEOPARK MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE t t
Elect a President, Vice-President, Secretary and Outreach Communications Delegate from among their members Elect two delegates as President and Secretary to each of the three Commissions from among the members: Geoscience and Education (GES), Responsible Tourism Interpretation, IT, Investment and Business Innovation (TRI4) and Community representation, preservation of identity and ancestral knowledge (RISA)
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Pass the annual Project Geopark Development Plan and 5-Year Framework Development and investment Plan Establish the funding required for the contracts of the DMO, the Commission meetings and targeted sources of financing and cooperation for key development and networking programmes and trips Appoint the members of the three assessment commissions (honorary positions/unpaid) and establish responsibilities and periodicity of reports Promote all agreements and activities required for projects and programmes, or investment designed to improve and preserve the socio-environmental and geological characteristics and interpretation within the Project Geopark Tungurahua in pursuit of the sustainable growth, business development and quality of life for the various communities (native, rural and urban) within the sphere of the Project Geopark (including satellite developments for cantons/partners applying to join in the future and the conditions upon which adhesion is based) To produce, with the commissions, and approve the Responsible Investment Manual and other strategic development manuals Appoint the UN Contact Person from among the members and the Delegation to travel in the event of necessary Geopark representations
5. Application Contact person. ING. ENRIQUE MAYORGA 22 de Julio y Padre Jorge Chacon, Pelileo, Ecuador e-mail:
[email protected] Tel: +593 (3)2871125 (extension 223)
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B – Geological Heritage 1. General geological description of the proposed Geopark
E
cuador is located along the spine of the Andean Cordillera and is divided into three geomorphic and geological provinces: the Costa, the Sierra and the Oriente. The Costa, which is outside the immediate physical area of study of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua but remains essential to its understanding, is an accreted region along the Pacific margin and comprises Upper Cretaceous to Cenozoic fore-arc sedimentary basins. The basement rocks are Lower Cretaceous marine basalts and basaltic andesites. The Sierra itself is a young, active mountain belt formed by at least two orogenic events: the Cordillera Occidental to the west of Paleozoic age and the Cordillera Real to the east of late Mesozoic to Cenozoic in age. The Cordillera Occidental contains remnants of a Cretaceous island arc overlain by Lower Tertiary volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. A series of Tertiary intrusions are found along the western flank of this cordillera. Active volcanoes of the Pliocene/Pleistocene age occur along the western and eastern flanks of both the western Cordillera Occidental and the eastern Cordillera Real. The Interandean Valley (35 km wide) separates the Cordillera Occidental from the Cordillera Real. The Cordillera Real is composed of metamorphic rocks and composite calc-alkaline batholiths of Triassic to Tertiary age. The Oriente, which lies immediately beyond the area of the Geopark Volcano Tungurahua consists of a series of Cretaceous back-arc sedimentary basins occurring as flat-lying sequences in the Amazon Basin. This region is almost completely covered by vegetation. Jurassic to Tertiary volcanic rocks occur along the western margins of the Oriente. Tertiary rocks cap all the Cretaceous structures. The area of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua includes parts of the Cordillera Oriental or Real (Mama Tungurahua itself), of the rich Interandean Valley and of the Cordillera Occidental (Taita Chimborazo). The Andes are the classic example of a mountain range built above a subduction zone. Patterns of seismicity and volcanism leave little doubt that the Pacific Plate is consumed beneath South America and that this has happened since at least the Late Jurassic (Gansser, 1973; Lonsdale, 1978). The Andes have probably grown by compression, uplift, intrusion, crustal thickening, and volcanism. Indeed, the active continental margin of Ecuador is still characterised by the subduction of the Nazca Plate below the South American Plate, at a mean rate of 58 mm/ yr. (Trenkamp et al., 2002). North of the Grijalva fracture zone, young oceanic crust (< 25 Ma) produced at the Cocos- Nazca spreading center is subducted at an angle of 25-35º (Lonsdale, 1998; Lonsdale and Klitgord, 1998), whereas older oceanic crust (> 25 Ma) is subducted south of the scarp (e.g. Lavenu et al., 1992). Ecuador can be subdivided in five distinct morphotectonic regions: (1) The coastal lowlands, with a basement composed of oceanic crust (Reynaud et al., 1999) and covered by Paleogene to Neogene forearc Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
deposits, (2) The Western Cordillera, which is composed of mafic and intermediate extrusive and intrusive rocks, tectonically juxtaposed with mostly turbiditic deposits of Late Cretaceous to Oligocene age. (3) The Interandean valley that lies to the east of the Western Cordillera, and hosts thick Pliocene to Pleistocene volcanic deposits, which bury its basement. However, there are small inliers and enclaves in volcanic rocks that show that the basement is composed of metamorphic and mafic, crystalline rocks (e.g. Bruet, 1980). The Interandean Depression extends northwards into Colombia, and is bound against the Western Cordillera of the Northern Andes by the Calacalí – Pujilí Fault (in Ecuador), and the Cauca Patia Fault (in Colombia). These faults define a part of the dismembered Late Cretaceous suture between the South American continental margin and mafic allochthonous blocks, which are partly exposed in the Western Cordillera (e.g. Litherland and Aspden, 1992). (4) The Eastern Cordillera is composed of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and Mesozoic granitoids (Litherland et al., 1994), and is separated from the Interandean Valley by the Peltetec Fault, which is a southward continuation of the Romeral Fault of Colombia. The eastern limit of the Eastern Cordillera is represented by the west dipping Cosanga Fault (5) The Oriente Basin including the Subandean Zone is a Late Cretaceous-Recent foreland basin that developed on the South American Plate margin, in response to the growth of the Eastern Cordillera. The principal topographic components of Ecuador are shown in Figure 1 (Pratt et al.,2005)
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n Ecuador, the boundary between the accreted terranes and the S American continental crust is not clear. The coastal plain coincides with one of the world’s largest onshore positive Bouguer gravity anomalies (Feininger and Seguin, 1983). It is thought to be a fragment of exotic, or allochthonous, oceanic plateau crust (Reynaud et al., 1999). Oceanic crust in the Cordillera Occidental is thought to be allochthonous (e.g. Feininger and Bristow, 1980), like that of Colombia (Bourgois et al., 1987). Most estimates place the limit of accreted oceanic crust on the W flank of the Inter-Andean Valley (e.g. Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002). However, it has been proposed that the Cordillera Real is also allochthonous with respect to the Guyana Shield. The Cordillera has been modelled as a Californian-type collage of narrow Mesozoic terranes, introduced by dextral strike-slip or dextral transpression (Aspden and Litherland, 1992) with the feature appearing subsequently for the Cordillera Real and in the World Bank metal exploration manuals for Ecuador (PRODEMINCA, 2000). Early studies of the Cordillera Real include the geological map and memoir of Sauer (1957) together with the petrographic and structural transects by Herbert (1977,1983) and Trouw (1976). Feininger (1982) was also responsible for a preliminary metamorphic geology of Ecuador. However, the main study was carried out by the British Geological Survey (BGS) who mapped the whole of the Cordillera Real between 1986 and 1990 (Aspden and Litherland,1992 ;Litherland et al., 1994). The BGS work, supported by isotopic dating, profoundly changed the map representation of the metamorphic rocks of Ecuador. Most contacts between units were depicted as faults and the interpre-
Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
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tation was radical, identifying a series of suspect terranes, including island arc, passive margin and ensialic basins. From W to E the terranes are: Guamote (continental), Alao-Paute (island arc), Loja (continental), Salado (island arc) and Amazonic (continental). The respective sutures are the Peltetec, Baños, Llanganates and Cosanga faults. The Interandean Valley affords the most accessible corridor across the Cordillera Real along the Río Pastaza, around the town of Baños that lies midway between Colombia and Peru. Here alone, along a short distance of some 35 km, there are five presumed terranes and four sutures (see Figure below). The most important structure is the sub-Andean Fault, a major reverse fault that brings metamorphic rocks over the sub-Andean Zone, a thrust belt of cleaved Cretaceous mudstones and sandstones. Apart from fossiliferous formations in the sub-Andean Zone and Inter-Andean Valley and intrusions dated by the BGS, there is little age control in the Cordillera Real. The metamorphic rocks are locally concealed by Recent lavas from Tungurahua.
B
etween the Agoyán bridge and the Agoyán waterfall, there is the site of the Tres Lagunas Granite (Late Triassic-Early Jurassic) (Litherland et al., 1994). This is probably the most unmistakeable lithology of the Ecuadorian Andes. Discontinuous outcrops are found also from Colombia to Peru with narrow slivers occurring in the Alao-Paute Unit in the Interandean valley (Litherland et al., 1994) and Pujilí fault (Hughes and Piltasig, 2002). Where least deformed, this is a light grey, coarse-grained porphyritic meta-granite. Only above Agoyán waterfall is sub-vertical magmatic banding defined locally by differences in grain size and mica content. Litherland et al. (1994) mapped both contacts of the granite as major faults in the Baños corridor. The western is well exposed beneath Agoyán Bridge, a crucial locality for the geological history of the Cordillera Real. Collision between the oldest oceanic terrane (Pallatanga) (Kerr et al., 2002) and continental South America occurred in the Late Cretaceous and probably drove the deformation of the Cordillera Real. It is hard to envisage orogenic deformation in a non-collisional setting, which probably rules Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
out subtle changes in plate convergence rate and vector as causes. The profound shortening and nappe tectonics of the Cordillera Real imply a strong orthogonal component to this collision rather than strike-slip, though strike-slip may have been partitioned into the main suture (Pujilí Fault). Other faults, such as the sub-Andean, probably suffered oblique/reverse displacements. This raises the issue of how the accreted oceanic terrane escaped deformation and metamorphism. The answer is probably twofold. Firstly, the Andean basins were sandwiched between two buttresses: the thick accreted oceanic plateau of the coastal plain (Guillier et al., 2001), and the Archaean crust of the Guyana Shield. Secondly, the basins were predisposed to deformation since they contained many kilometres of mud-dominated rocks and were sited on probable thinned continental crust. The existence of large-scale E-verging nappes in the N half of the Cordillera (Litherland et al., 1994) suggests that the Baños corridor represents the deeper levels of the orogen and that the steep foliations and axial planes turn upwards and outwards, akin to a flower structure (cf. Harding, 1985). If this is the case, then there may have been a component of transpression in the deformation of the orogen. The Late Cretaceous–Paleocene orogenic event marked the beginning of the Andean cycle of compressive deformation and fault-dominated tectonics. The flysche-like Tertiary deposits in the Oriente Basin accumulated during continued phases of compressional deformation (Christophoul et al., 2002) and reverse faulting continue at present in the sub-Andean Basin.
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2. Listing and description of Geological sites within the proposed Geopark
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he most important draws from both the geological and geotourism perspective of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua are the actual volcanoes of Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Carihuairazo and El Altar, (Huisla, Mulmul, and Igualata )* since they are the dynamic and visible reflection of the faults and tectonic movements of the Andes. They are also responsible, through their unpredictable activity, for shaping the day-to-day activities and tangible and intangible heritage of the places surrounding them. Sites South and West of Tungurahua have experienced severe damage to agriculture, built infrastructure and, thus, livelihood (Le Pennec et al., 2011). Climate changes have been effected as acidic rain has rusted and corroded elements while contaminating water supplies and wastewater runoff. There have been a calculated 795 lahar floods from 2000-2010 alone while latest studies also trace the effect of volcanic ash from Tungurahua accelerating glacier melt on Chimborazo, thereby further endangering the livelihood of the communities in the shadow of the volcano. Therefore, the live volcanoes of the Andes, together with their extinct counterparts, are important to the understanding of how adaptation to change without loss of identity is central to the sustainable livelihood, character and world vision in this part of Ecuador. As such, the main geo-sites are found around these four principal characters in the story of the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua. Andrea Wulf says in her book, The Invention of Nature: Alexander Humboldt’s New World that: As he stood that day on Chimborazo, Humboldt absorbed what lay in front of him while his mind reached back to all the plants, rock formations and measurements that he had seen and taken on the slopes of the Alps, the Pyrenees and in Tenerife. Everything that he had ever observed fell into place. Nature, Humboldt realized, was a web of life and a global force. He was, a colleague later said, the first to understand that everything was interwoven ‘with a thousand threads’. It is to be hoped that visitors to the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua will be able to understand the global force and interwoven threads as Humboldt once did, perhaps not from the heights of Chimborazo but certainly Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
through the observation and experience of the magnificent volcanic panorama and geodiversity on offer in the area. As already stated, the main perceived geo-sites around which all activity is organised in the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua are the major volcanoes in the area: Tungurahua, El Áltar, Carihuairazo and Chimborazo together with the Inter-Andean Valley. The geology of the area has dictated the destiny of the five cantons that conform the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua and shaped them physically, from the geographical and human perspectives. The people of Pelileo, Penipe, Patate, Guano and Baños have rebuilt their presents and futures time and time again as the result of the various eruptions and earthquakes that have endangered or destroyed their livelihoods, conscious of the magnificence and importance of the “creative destructive forces” that surround them and control them. The Project GeoPark is working in co-management with the local communities, therefore, to promote responsible sustainable development of geo-tourism aimed at promoting geo-education and conservation of geo-diversity, interpreted by the local people for the local people.
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s such, the detailed descriptions given here are those of the major volcanic edifices that will draw tourism to the area and that represent their unique geo-heritage, with a brief summary list of the other geo-sites per canton and in the Project Geopark as a whole. Mulmul, Huisla and Igualata are included in the second phase of development of the Project Geopark and, as such, are not dealt with in detail here. A fuller,
more detailed description of all of the geosites to be included within the Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua, its database and geo-routes is given in the Annexes of the Self-Evaluation. The file used to describe each individual geo-site of the more than 100 identified in the inventory of the Project Geopark was the following qualitative evaluation, an adaptation of Martínez’s version (2010) (also to be found in the Annexes).
Project Geopark Volcano Tungurahua
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2.1 The Volcano Tungurahua.
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ungurahua in the Cordillera Real or Eastern Cordillera (Lat. 01º28’S, Long.78º27’W), 120 km to the southeast of Quito and 33 km southeast of Ambato is one of the most active volcanoes in the whole of Ecuador. It has presently been active uninterruptedly since 2010. The city of Baños de Agua Santa is on the northern skirts of the volcano, some 8 km distant from the peak with Penipe, the capital city of the Canton of the same name on the south-west slopes, some 14 km from the peak.. The main characteristic of this area (and indeed of the whole of the Project Geopark) is the difference in height between here, the Peak of Tungurahua (5.023 masl) and the altitude of Baños (1.800 masl), giving rise, therefore, to a wealth of different volcanic landscapes and diverse ethno-bio-geoscapes. The Rivers Patate and Chambo that flow from the Sierra run together at the NW foot of the volcano to form the River Pastaza that winds through the Cordillera Oriental down to the East and the Amazon basin. To the North of Tungurahua lies the Cordillera de Llanganates; to the South towers El Altar; and to the West, the volcanoes of Mulmul, Huisla and Igualata offer the highest altitudes. Tungurahua forms part of the Sangay National Park together with Sangay volcano.
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ungurahua (5,023masl), also known as “The Black Giant”, according to Minard L. Hall et al (1999) is actually made up of three volcanic edifices, all produced at varying points over time. This volcano with extreme relief (3,200m) over its steep sides and with a small summit glacier defines the Eastern volcanic row or Cordillera Real, 35 km behind the volcanic front of the Western Cordillera, together with other active volcanoes such as Cotopaxi, Sangay, Antisana and Cayambe. There were four major eruptive episodes previous to 1999, 2006 and 2010 between 1641 and 1646, between 1773 and 1781 (plus crater explosions in 1797 coincident with the earthquake that destroyed Riobamba), between 1836 and 1888, and the last at
the beginning of the 20th century, between 1916 and 1918 although Tungurahua, in the same period, has been responsible for seven major emissions of lava, pyroclastic flows and tephra fallout. The fumarolic activity is permanent as of 2010 from the summit crater that is 150-200m in diameter and 50m deep. There are hot springs around the base of the volcano, (14km in diameter), obviously of interest to this project on account of their geo-tourist attraction. The surrounding topography of this broadly conical volcano is generally around 2,000 to 3,000m in elevation with the principal rivers in the immediate vicinity (the Chambo, Puela and Pastaza) descending from 2,400 to 1,600 m. As previously detailed, Tungurahua, a relatively recent andesitic stratovolcano constructed upon a Paleozoic-Cretaceous regional metamorphic basement (Litherland & Egüez, 1993) is made up of three successive edifices, the first two of which are partially destroyed. The first edifice corresponds to the NE and S edifice, outward-dipping and incised by deep canyons. The old edifice suffered at least one sector collapse and extrusion of old dacite lava. The second main edifice was the result of acid andesite lava flows (
