Environmental Concerns for Bangladesh

South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, n.s., Vol.XXVI, no.3, December 2003

Environmental Concerns for Bangladesh* Ian Metcalfe University of New England

Introduction Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated and poorest countries in the world. Per-capita income is very low, as is life expectancy (Table 1). In terms of poverty, 35.6 percent of the population falls below the national poverty line, of which 29.1 percent is below the international poverty line of US$1 per day—1993 Purchasing Power Parity.1 Annual population growth in Bangladesh was about 2.5 percent in the 1960s to 1980s but this has slowed to about 1.7 percent in the last decade. Despite an average Gross National Product (GNP) growth in recent decades of 3.9 percent, GNP per capita growth in Bangladesh remains low—at about 1.4 percent.2 Bangladesh’s Human Development Index (HDI) value is 0.478 and it has an HDI Rank of 145 out of 173 countries.3 The World Trade Organisation (WTO) has stated that Bangladesh’s main problems include civil unrest and political instability, natural disasters, and inadequate infrastructure. Bangladesh is situated on the largest delta plain in the world at the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna river systems (Figure 1) which have their headwaters in the Himalayas and north-eastern hills of India. Half of the flat to gently undulating delta flood plain, with its network of river systems, is at elevations less than 10m above sea level. The southern coastal region of Bangladesh forms part of the largest mangrove * This is a revised version of a working paper presented at the ASSA/UNE Asia Centre Workshop on Bangladesh in October 2002, and of the following book chapter: I. Metcalfe, ‘Long-Term Environmental Issues for Bangladesh’, in Moazzem Hossain, A.K.M. Nurun Nabi, and Iyanatul Islam (eds), Bangladesh’s Development Agenda and Vision 2020: Rhetoric or Reality? (Dhaka: The University Press Limited, 2003) pp.301–17. 1 I. Metcalfe, ‘Framing Women Workers: Gender-Related Socio-Demographic and Economic Indicators in Asia’, in A. Kaur (ed.), Women Workers in Industrialising Asia: Costed Not Valued (Basingstoke: Palgrave, in press); and United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 2002: The State Of World Population 2001. Footprints and Milestones: Population and Environmental Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). 2 World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000 (Washington: The World Bank, 2000). 3 United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 2001: Making New Technologies Work for Human Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); and United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 2002. ISSN 0085-6401 print; 1479-0270 online/03/030423-16  2003 South Asian Studies Association of Australia DOI: 10.1080/0085640032000178961

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Table 1 Some Basic Facts About Bangladesh Official name Capital Area (Thousands of sq. km.) Population (millions) Population density (per sq. km.) Urban population (percent–2000) Gross national income (per capita) Structure of GDP (percent–2001) Agriculture Industry Services Ecological footprint (area units per person–1999) Human development index (HDI) ranking Gender-related development index (GDI) Ranking: Life expectancy at birth Mortality rate under 5 years old (per 1,000) Adult literacy rate (percent–2000) Total Men Women

People’s Republic of Bangladesh Dhaka 144 140.4 (2001) 975 (2001) 25 $US370 (2001) 23 25 52 0.53 145th of 173 countries (2000) 121st of 146 countries (2000) 40 (1960), 59 (2000) 248 (1960), 82 (2000) 41 52 30

Sources: UNDP, Human Development Report 2002: The State Of World Population 2001. Footprints and Milestones: Population and Environmental Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); UNFPA, The State Of World Population 2001; UNICEF, The State Of the World’s Children 2002; World Bank, World Development Report 2003: Sustainable Development in a Dynamic Economy (Washington: The World Bank, 2002); World Wildlife Fund, Living Planet Report 2000 [http://www.panda.org/ livingplanet/lpr00/].

forest complex in the world. Natural resources of Bangladesh include water, land, fisheries, forests and wildlife. The huge (140 million) and rapidly increasing population of Bangladesh places immense pressure on these natural resources and on the environment. Human health problems related to the environment are primarily due to contaminated ground and surface waters. The various contributory factors to environmental stress and degradation in Bangladesh are shown in Figure 2 and discussed under separate headings below. Climate Change, Environment and Natural Hazards Environmental and economic policy agendas of developing countries are yet to significantly feature climate change, despite such countries facing some of its most adverse effects, which have severe implications for sustainable development.4 4

N. Beg, J.C. Morlot, O. Davidson, Y. Afrane-Okesse, L. Tyani, F. Denton, Y. Sokona, J.P. Thomas, E.L. La Rovere, J.K. Parikh and A.A. Rahman, ‘Linkages Between Climate Change and Sustainable Development’, in Climate Policy, Vol.2 (2002), pp.129–44.

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Figure 1 The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna River Basins Source: M.M.Q. Mirza, ‘Global Warming and Changes in the Probability Of Occurrence Of Floods in Bangladesh and Implications’, in Global Environmental Change, Vol.12 (2002), pp.127–38.

Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to the effects of global warming and climate change due to its low elevation situation on a giant delta flood plain. Of particular concern are: drainage congestion; reduced fresh water availability; increased intensity of major floods; and rising sea level. Whilst Bangladesh cannot have a major role in the mitigation of human greenhouse gas emissions, it remains very much on the receiving end and suffers from the consequences. Global surface temperature has increased significantly by about 0.6oC since direct measurements began in 1860 (Figure 3). This rise is unprecedented compared to proxy data for the last 1000 years (Figure 3) and is attributed by many to human influences on the environment. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 report also projects a further global average temperature rise of between 1.4 and 5.8oC from 1990 to 2100, which may cause a rise in sea level through melting polar ice and thermal expansion of between 8 and 88cm.5 Sea level along the Bangladesh coast is currently rising by 3mm per year. Catastrophic rainy monsoons, which previously occurred only every half-century on average, are likely, due to global 5

R.T. Watson (ed.), Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

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Figure 2 Factors Inducing Environmental and Social Stress and Degradation in Bangladesh and the Expressions of Those Stresses Sources: I. Metcalfe, ‘Long-Term Environmental Issues for Bangladesh’, in Moazzem Hossain, A.K.M. Nurun Nabi, and Iyanatul Islam (eds), Bangladesh’s Development Agenda and Vision 2020: Rhetoric or Reality? (Dhaka: The University Press Limited, 2003), p.303; and partly after M. Alauddin, ‘Environmentalising Economic Development: A Southeast Asian Perspective’, Discussion Papers in Economics, No.299 (School of Economics, University of Queensland, 2002).

warming, to occur every decade or more frequently by the latter half of this century.6 During winters, it is expected that reduced river flow will lead to reduced fresh water availability, drainage congestion due to over-silting, and more pro6

T.N. Palmer and J. Ra¨isa¨nen, ‘Quantifying the Risk Of Extreme Seasonal Precipitation Events in a Changing Climate’, in Nature, No.415 (2002), pp.512–14.

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Figure 3 Departures in Temperatures in °C from the 1961–1990 Average for the Past 140 Years (globally) and the Past 1000 Years (northern hemisphere) Source: R.T. Watson (ed.), Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

nounced salt water incursion along the coastal zones. Increasing devastation from cyclones is also likely to follow from the rise in sea level. Cyclonic impacts include induced inundations and water logging, increased salinity in ground and surface waters and soils, and increased erosion and accretion, which would affect coastal resources7. Yet Bangladesh is also subject to recurrent droughts. Between 1960 and 1991, droughts occurred 19 times, with severe droughts in 1961, 1975, 1981, 1982, 1984 and 1989. In the past, droughts have on average affected about 47 percent of the land area of Bangladesh and 53 percent of the population. Droughts occur during two periods: the Rabi and pre-Kharif droughts in January and May respectively; and the Kharif droughts in June/July to October. Western regions are especially 7

The World Bank, ‘Bangladesh: Climate Change and Sustainable Development’, World Bank Report, No.21104BD (2000).

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Table 2 Climate Change Scenarios for Bangladesh in 2030 and 2050

Source: The World Bank, ‘Bangladesh: Climate Change and Sustainable Development’, World Bank Report, No.21104BD (2000).

vulnerable, and so are particular crops: Rabi Aus rice, Boro rice and wheat; and Kharif Aman rice. With projected future climate changes in Bangladesh (Table 2) droughts will become more frequent and more severe, and will have significant detrimental effects on agricultural production in the country. Bangladesh therefore faces multiple environmental threats due to global warming and climate change.

Environment and Natural Resources Water Resources Water is perhaps the most important natural resource that affects both the economy and environment of Bangladesh. The water story in Bangladesh is one of extremes, ranging from too much water in the monsoon periods with annual floods covering 18 percent of the country and up to 36 percent in severe flooding episodes (60 percent of the net cultivable area), to periods of drought and desertification in the dry seasons.8 The annual flood waters seep down into the soils and recharge underground aquifers. Changes in the water regime and in water quality have major implications for agricultural production, fisheries production, desertification, deforestation and human health. During times of flooding, run-off waters fill wetlands or hoars (bowl shaped depressions), beels (small saucer-shaped depressions within a hoar) and boars (ox-bow lakes, abandoned water courses), and these water bodies provide spawning grounds for fish, habitats for migratory birds, and facilitate groundwater recharge. The silt load carried by flooding rivers also brings nutrients to enrich soils. 8

C.V. Ipe, ‘Issues in the Management Of the Environment and Natural Resources in Bangladesh’, in Journal Of Environmental Management, Vol.45 (1995), pp.319–32.

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The wetlands of Bangladesh provide water for agricultural irrigation during the dry season. Expansion of agricultural irrigation projects and flood control projects in the country have, however, disturbed these natural habitats and interfered with the natural fish spawning, in some cases resulting in much reduced fish production.9 Lack of fresh water during the dry season is an ongoing problem in Bangladesh and with the expansion of agricultural activities and irrigation, aimed at feeding the growing population, more and more pressure is being put on available water resources. Traditionally, surface ponds and lakes, shallow dug wells, lift pumps, and shallow and deep tube wells have provided water for drinking and irrigation during the dry season. Changes in the water regimes have seen shallow dug wells running dry in some parts of the country, while the extraction of ground water has lowered the water table significantly. The surface and near surface water resources also pose continuing health threats from water-borne diseases. River Pollution Waters of the Padma (Ganges) River have been shown to contain high levels of chromium, manganese and copper at a monitoring station at Mawa in Munshiganj district operated by the Bangladesh Water Development Board. In particular, chromium levels of about 0.33 parts per million (ppm) are almost six times higher than the World Health Organisation standard of 0.05ppm. The source of these metals is unclear and some of the pollution is considered likely to originate upstream over the Indian border. Pollution of the Padma further south, and other rivers in Bangladesh, is due to agricultural pesticides, and untreated domestic and industrial effluent (see below). Groundwater Contamination Thirty years ago, international agencies headed by UNICEF embarked on an aid program to provide ‘clean’ drinking water by the provision of tube wells to the population of Bangladesh. At that time, most of the country’s rural population relied on surface ponds and rivers for their drinking water. Sewage bacteria entering these water sources unleashed a host of water-borne diseases which killed a quarter of a million children each year according to the World Bank. This program, as it turns out, is perhaps the best example of a well-intentioned, well-funded international aid resource development program which had initial benefits in alleviating water-borne disease problems, but which went very wrong, instead causing long-term devastating negative environmental and social impacts. According to the World Health Organisation, the tube wells aid program in Bangladesh has resulted in the biggest outbreak of mass poisoning in history! What has caused this poisoning? Naturally-occurring high levels of arsenic in the ground water is the culprit. Up to half the country’s tube wells, now estimated to number 11 million, are poisoned with levels of arsenic far above the World Health Organisation’s acceptable level of 0.01mg/l for drinking water (Figure 4).

9

Ibid.

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Figure 4 Arsenic Concentrations in Shallow Groundwaters Of Bangladesh Source: D.G. Kinnigurgh and P.L. Smedley (eds), ‘Arsenic Contamination Of Groundwater in Bangladesh, Vol.2: Final Report’, British Geological Survey Report, WC/00/19 (2001).

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Arsenic-contaminated ground water occurs over 80 percent of the total area of Bangladesh,10 and in excess of 40 million (and possibly up to 77 million) people are at risk. Arsenic poisoning is cumulative and among people affected, the most common effects are melanosis (93.5 percent), keratosis (68.3 percent), hyperkeratosis (37.6 percent) and depigmentation (leuco-melanosis) (39.1 percent).11 Gangrene, as well as skin, lung, bladder, liver and renal cancers are also common.12 What is the origin of the arsenic and what can de done about this problem? Various suggestions were put forward to explain the high levels of the arsenic in the ground water of Bangladesh, including anthropological origins (pesticides etc.), oxidation of arsenic-rich pyrite13 and leaching of arsenic from alluvial sediments under reducing conditions. A major study by the British Geological Survey (BGS) in 2001 showed that the arsenic is without doubt of natural origin in alluvial sediments derived from upland Himalayan catchments and basement rocks in Bengal.14 In most affected areas, poisoned aquifers are shallow (less than 100– 150m deep), are of Holocene age and comprise micaceous sands, silts and clays. There is normally a capping layer of clay or silty clay that inhibits entry of air to the aquifer and this, together with an abundance of recent organic matter deposited with the sediments, leads to highly reducing aquifer conditions and high levels of arsenic in solution as As(III). In 2002, Anwar et al. demonstrated that the anthropological and oxidation origins of the arsenic were untenable, thus supporting the BGS conclusions. Suggested strategies for mitigation of the problem include the following. Firstly, the sharing of tube wells that are currently free from or low in arsenic. This strategy is unfortunately inapplicable in highly contaminated areas where all tube wells are unsafe, and which in other areas would require colour coding of wells and regular monitoring of arsenic levels as these are known to change with time. Secondly, the development of deep tube wells. This strategy would target deeper, older aquifers known to be essentially arsenic-free. The costs of this strategy and who would pay (the community or outside agencies) are yet to be determined. Thirdly, the chemical treatment of contaminated tube well water to make it safe for human consumption. A number of chemical treatment strategies have been developed and trialed,15 but there is again the enormous task of educating the population 10 M.M. Karim, ‘Arsenic in Groundwater and Health Problems in Bangladesh’, in Water Resources, Vol.34 (2000), pp.304–10. 11 Ibid. 12 H.M. Anwar, J. Akai, K.M.G. Mostofa, S. Safiullah and S.M. Tareq, ‘Arsenic Poisoning in Groundwater: Health Risk and Geochemical Sources in Bangladesh’, in Environment International, Vol.27 (2002), pp.597–604. 13 D. Das, G. Samanta, B.K. Mandal, T.R. Chowdhury, C.R. Chanda, P.P. Chowdhury, G.K. Basu, and D. Chakraborti, ‘Arsenic in Groundwater in Six Districts of West Bengal, India’, in Environ. Geochem. Health, Vol.18 (1996), pp.5–15. 14 D.G. Kinnigurgh and P.L. Smedley (eds), ‘Arsenic Contamination Of Groundwater in Bangladesh, Vol.2: Final Report’, British Geological Survey Report WC/00/19 (2001). 15 World Health Organisation (WHO), Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Vol. 1: Recommendations (Geneva: WHO, 1994); and A. Ramaswami, S. Tawachsupa and M. Isleyen, ‘Batch-Mixed Iron Treatment Of High Arsenic Waters’, in Water Resources, Vol.35 (2001), pp.4474–9.

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in these methods, and also a significant cost. Fourthly, the return to surface water sources for drinking. Surface waters are typically low in arsenic and suitable for drinking. However, they are frequently contaminated by human and animal sewage and other pollutants. If surface waters are to be used as an alternative, then the surface waters themselves will need to be treated, and then the question arises of whether this treatment would be cheaper than treating the arsenic-contaminated ground waters. Fifthly, harvesting rainwater. This would be capital intensive at first. There would also be possible contamination problems associated with air pollution, bacteriological contamination from bird droppings, insect intrusion etc., particularly if the water was to be stored for long periods.

Forest Resources Bangladesh’s forests cover only 1 million hectares (ha) and account for only 6 percent of the total land area of the country. Three types of forests occur in Bangladesh: tropical evergreen/semi-evergreen forests; mangrove forests called Sunderbans; and moist/dry deciduous forests called Sal forests. Of these three, the Sunderbans are one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world and are worthy of special note. The Sunderbans have been managed as a forest reserve since 1817 and satisfy the entire national demand for newsprint and hardboard, and about 10 percent of fuelwood needs. In addition, the Sunderbans provide a habitat for shrimp cultivation and act as a nursery for offshore fishery. The coastal protection properties of the mangrove forests (against storm surges and cyclones) cannot be over-emphasised. The Sunderbans were designated a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site in 1997. Threats to the Sunderbans come from increased pressures to harvest larger amounts of wood and forest products, and in particular from over-cutting of trees for fuelwood and newsprint.16 Since the 1960s there has been a decline in Bangladesh’s forests from about 20 percent to 6 percent of the country’s total land area. Deforestation in river catchment areas has led to soil erosion and increased sediment load of rivers.

Land and Soil Resources Agriculture is the major land-use activity in Bangladesh and accounts for about 24 percent of the Bangladesh Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and 74 percent of employment. Most of the agricultural products are for domestic consumption apart from raw jute and jute products which comprise 2 percent of Bangladesh’s merchandise exports.17 The soils of Bangladesh are fertile, with flood plain soils comprising about 80 percent of the total area.18 The major environmental considerations relating to land and soils are droughts, leading to desertification and soil erosion, and floods, which erode valuable topsoil and cause land degradation. Increased population, increased number of land holdings, and increased inequality 16 17 18

Ipe, ‘Issues in the Management Of the Environment and Natural Resources in Bangladesh’, pp.319–32. World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000. Ibid.

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in land distribution has led to increasing fragmentation of land. The average land holding declined from 1.4ha in 1960 to 0.9ha in 1992.19 Inequality and increased landlessness has resulted in pressure to clear forests and wildlife habitats. Water pollution from pesticides is also an environmental concern relating to land use in Bangladesh. Although the use of organochlorine insecticides (except heptachlor) for agricultural and public health purposes was banned in Bangladesh in 1993, existing stocks and limited use of DDT for plague control was still permitted in 1994. Recent studies indicate that organochlorine residues of DDT, heptachlor, lindane and dieldrin are present in both the surface and underground water sources of Bangladesh.20 Levels of the permitted organochlorine heptachlor are well above WHO recommended levels which raises concerns. Contamination of agricultural soils due to long-term irrigation with groundwater contaminated with arsenic has led to serious threats to human health through dietary exposure to arsenic and other toxic metals contained in vegetables produced in Bangladesh.21

Fishery Resources and Aquaculture Freshwater fisheries are a major source of employment for the rural poor in Bangladesh. Individuals and small groups use traditional gear to catch mainly Hilsa (river shad). However flood control, drainage and irrigation projects undertaken for agricultural development have adversely affected fish production, while contamination of water by pesticides and other chemicals has also had detrimental effects. Freshwater aquaculture only constitutes about 15 percent of inland fishery. The possibilities for large-scale freshwater aquaculture exist in Bangladesh with a large number of under-utilised ponds throughout the country; the application of modern hatchery and aquaculture techniques should be seriously considered. Coastal aquaculture mainly involves shrimp production. Shrimp farming has become a very lucrative business and Bangladesh is the world’s largest producer of freshwater shrimp. Since the 1980s there has been a dramatic increase in shrimp farming, especially in the coastal areas where this has been termed the ‘blue revolution’. Between 1980 and 1995, the area under shrimp cultivation increased from 20,000ha to 140,000ha, but this expansion has been unregulated, uncontrolled and uncoordinated.22 The impact of this unregulated expansion has been overfishing (the industry is mainly dependent on wild sources of fry), the loss of shellfish and fin fish due to the catching of wild tiger shrimp fry, the destruction of fragile mangrove ecosystems which provide many other benefits to society, and

19

Ibid. M.A. Matin, M.A. Malek, M.R. Amin, S. Rahman, J. Khatoon, M. Rahman, M. Aminuddin and A.J. Mian, ‘Organochlorine Insecticide Residues in Surface and Underground Water from Different Regions Of Bangladesh’, in Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, Vol.69 (1998), pp.11–15. 21 M.G.M. Alam, E.T. Snow and A. Tanaka, ‘Arsenic and Heavy Metal Contamination Of Vegetables Grown in Samta Village, Bangladesh’, in The Science Of the Total Environment, Vol.308 (2003), pp.83–96. 22 A.K. Deb, ‘Fake Blue Revolution: Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts Of Shrimp Culture in the Coastal Areas Of Bangladesh’, in Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol.41 (1998), pp.63–88. 20

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soil acidity and salt incursion with flow-on effects on other coastal agricultural activities. Intensive shrimp farming also requires large amounts of fresh water (approximately 25–30 million litres to raise one tonne of shrimps), and shrimp pond effluent (ammonia, nitrate, phosphate, bacteria) makes a significant contribution to both inorganic and organic coastal pollution. The socio-economic effects of shrimp cultivation include the traditional resource-use rights of coastal people being eroded and labour utility disequilibrium.23 Environment and Energy Energy use in Bangladesh includes a significant use of traditional fuels such as rice husks, cow dung, rice straw, twigs and leaves, bagasse, fuelwood and jute sticks. About 90 percent of the population depends upon biomass for cooking and other domestic needs.24 Traditional fuel use in 1997 comprised 43.3 percent of total energy use, which is a marked reduction from 1980 when traditional sources of fuel comprised 81.3 percent of the total.25 The continued use of biomass as fuels rather than fertiliser leads to a decline in soil organic matter content and the loss of agricultural production. A more sustainable use of biomass fuels is required in the country and increased use of natural gas will help enormously in this endeavour. In addition, models for the empowerment of the rural poor through renewable energy technologies have been made,26 but financial and social impediments to the uptake of such technologies at the rural community level will have to be overcome. Commercial energy sources are hydroelectricity, natural gas and imported oil. In recent years, the inshore and offshore coastal zones of Bangladesh have been explored for fossil fuel resources (oil and gas). In the southeast Sangu Valley, a large natural gas field was discovered and production began in 1998; it is envisaged that this and probable future natural gas discoveries will lead to the development of gas-based power plants promoting export zones and rapid industrialisation. In environmental terms, the use of natural gas is much ‘cleaner’ than other alternative fossil fuel sources. The use of solar energy as a clean, sustainable, cost-effective alternative to traditional sources of energy may also be a viable way of sustaining a relatively high standard of living in Bangladesh.27 Carbon dioxide emissions for Bangladesh were at a modest level of 7.6 million tonnes in 1980 and have shown a significant increase to 23 million tonnes in 1996.28 This increase is no doubt related to industrialisation, with the industry proportion of GDP increasing from 24 percent in 1980 to 28 percent in 1998. The per capita emissions figure for Bangladesh is, however, low, with values of 0.1 million tonnes in 1980, and 0.2 million tonnes in both 1996 and 2000. This constitutes only 0.1 percent of world total carbon dioxide emissions, and compares 23

Ibid. Ipe, ‘Issues in the Management Of the Environment and Natural Resources in Bangladesh’, pp.319–32. 25 World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000. 26 See, for instance, W.K. Biswas, P. Bryce and M. Diesendorf, ‘Model for Empowering Rural Poor Through Renewable Energy Technologies in Bangladesh’, in Environmental Science & Policy, Vol.4, pp.333–44. 27 S. Islam and A.U. Huda, ‘Proper Utilization Of Solar Energy in Bangladesh: Effect on the Environment, Food Supply and the Standard Of Living’, in Renewable Energy, Vol.17 (1999), pp.255–63. 28 World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000. 24

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extremely favourably with world averages of 3.4 million tonnes in 1996 and 4 million tonnes in 2000, and High Income Country per capita emissions of 12.3 million tonnes in 1996.29 Environment and Industry With industrialisation comes responsibilities for ensuring environmentally sustainable development. In low-income countries like Bangladesh, where feeding the population is still a major problem, and where life expectancy, infant mortality, and general health and human development levels are well below acceptable norms, considerations for environmental sustainability are a low priority compared to the need to improve basic qualities of life. In this sense, Bangladesh has a long way to go in the sustainability stakes. Industrial pollution in Bangladesh comes mainly from agro-industries, heavy industries and chemical industries. Among the agro-industries, leather tanneries are a major source of environmental pollution. There are about 160 leather factories in the country, mostly situated in the Hazaribag district of Dhaka. These industries dump their effluent into the Buriganga River; among the many pollutants released is the highly toxic hexavalent form of chromium.30 Other pollutants include arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, manganese, nickel, titanium and zinc. Polluting heavy industries include steel, carpet and textile mills; about 51 percent of organic pollutants in water are derived from textile industries. Chemical industries include fertiliser factories which dump untreated effluent into rivers, and distilleries and sulphuric acid plants which emit noxious gases such as sulphur dioxide, leading to acid rain.31 Environment and Urbanisation In 1998 some 23 percent of Bangladesh’s population was urban (up from 8 percent in 1970), which translates to about 30 million people living in about 500 urban centres. But more than 10 percent of the total population now lives in agglomerations of more than 1 million. In the larger centres crowding is an acute problem with average floor space per person being one of the lowest in the world. Yet about 77 percent of the urban population has access to sanitation, whereas only 30 percent of rural people have such access.32 The major cities also have natural gas supplies for both domestic and industrial use. Nevertheless the use of fuelwood continues, particularly for cooking, and contributes significantly to air pollution. Shortages of housing and pipe water, sewage treatment, drainage and garbage disposal in urban areas has led to deteriorating health for the urban poor. To sum up, the principal environmental issues related to urbanisation are access to 29

Ibid.; and World Bank, World Development Report 2003: Sustainable Development in a Dynamic Economy. (Washington: The World Bank, 2002). Ipe, ‘Issues in the Management Of the Environment and Natural Resources in Bangladesh’, pp.319–32. 31 M. Alauddin, ‘Environmentalising Economic Development: A Southeast Asian Perspective’, Discussion Papers in Economics, No. 299 (School of Economics, University of Queensland, 2002). 32 World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000. 30

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clean water, air pollution, inadequate drainage and sanitation, the release of untreated domestic and industrial effluent into waterways, inadequate waste management, and noise pollution. Failure to address these issues will lead to increases in respiratory diseases and in the incidence of lead poisoning,33 and accelerate the spread of water-borne diarrheal diseases and malaria. Aquatic life in the rivers of Bangladesh will also suffer. Environment and Wildlife: Biodiversity With economic growth, declining biodiversity is becoming a major global concern. The remnant of partially protected land in Bangladesh is low at 0.75 percent of total land area. Much of this is the Sunderbans forest reserve but, as noted above, even this forest reserve is shrinking due to development activities and over-harvesting of fuelwood. Bangladesh has a great diversity of animals and plants, with 109 species of mammals, 295 species of birds and 5000 species of higher plants.34 Over the last 100 years, the country has lost 18 species of mammals, while according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 2000 Red List, threatened species in Bangladesh number 77 (including 21 mammals, 23 birds, 21 reptiles, and 12 plants). The threatened species include the Royal Bengal tiger, the elephant, the leopard, a number of primates and the estuarine crocodile; the Sunderbans mangrove forests in south-western Bangladesh and eastern India are home to the only genetically viable tiger population in the world. Nature conservation in Bangladesh is losing out to economic growth and human development. Ecological Footprint The ecological footprint of a country estimates the population’s consumption of energy, food and materials in terms of the area of biologically productive land required to produce those natural resources, or absorb corresponding carbon dioxide emissions. As Wackernagel et al. note, one of the crucial variables in this equation is the biologically-productive area required to continuously provide resource supplies and absorb wastes of a particular population given prevailing technology.35 Footprint numbers illustrate problems facing sustainability, but also indicate an equity problem in that Northern industrialised countries’ current resource use requires drastic under-use by Southern populations. Moreover, it is clear that over-consumption, not poverty, is the greatest threat to sustainable development.36

33

M.M. Karim, ‘Traffic Pollution Inventories and Modelling in Metropolitan Dhaka, Bangladesh’, Transportation Research Part D 4 (1999), pp.291–312. World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000. 35 M. Wackernagel, L. Onisto, A. Callejas Linares, I.S. Lo´pez Falfa´n, J. Me´ndez Garcı´a, A.I. Sua´rez Guerrero, and M.G. Sua´rez Guerrero, ‘Ecological Footprints Of Nations’, Rio ⫹ 5 Consultation Report (1997). 36 Ibid. 34

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Figure 5 Ecological Footprint Of Bangladesh Compared to Other Countries Of the World and the World Average Source: M. Wackernagel, L. Onisto, A. Callejas Linares, I.S. Lo´pez Falfa´n, J. Me´ndez Garcı´a, A.I. Sua´rez Guerrero, and M.G. Sua´rez Guerrero, ‘Ecological Footprints Of Nations’, Rio ⫹ 5 Consultation Report (1997).

Environmental Rules and Regulations in Bangladesh The first official regulatory legislation for the control, prevention and mitigation of pollution in Bangladesh was the Environmental Pollution Control Ordinance 1977. This was a general ordinance which repealed the existing Water Pollution Control Ordinance, 1970. In 1992, Bangladesh initiated environmental impact assessment guidelines for water sector development.37 In turn, the 1977 Ordinance was replaced, in 1995, by the Environmental Conservation Act. Under this legislation, environmental clearance is required for establishing or undertaking industrial units or projects. The clear implication is that clearance will only be given to projects that meet the environmental guidelines and standards for the control and mitigation of environmental pollution and the conservation and improvement of environment set out in Article 20 of the Act and published as the Environment Conservation Rules (ECR) of 1997. The ECR encompasses the following: a declaration of Ecologically Critical Areas; a procedure for granting Environmental Clearance; environmental standards for air, water, noise, odour and other environmental components; and the setting of waste discharge and emission standards. To enforce the Act, the Bangladesh Department of Environment (DOE) was created.38

37

S. Momtaz, ‘Environmental Impact Assessment in Bangladesh: A Critical Review’, in Environmental Impact Assessment Review, No.22 (2002), pp.163–79. A.K.M.A. Quader, ‘Environmental Rules and Regulations in Bangladesh’, in Alochona Magazine (Feb. 2002).

38

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The above standards are less stringent than those in developed countries but are comparable to those in India. On the other hand, the procedures and measurement methods to be used for aligning the parameters listed in the standards with the US Code of Federal Regulations, ‘Title 40—Protection of Environment’, have yet to be worked out.39 Despite the introduction of environmental procedures and standards by the Bangladesh government, blatant disregard for these procedures and standards is still rampant. In terms of enforcement, the Environmental Conservation Act of 1995 is a ‘command and control’ type regulation which provides no economic incentives for compliance. In terms of the technical assessment of compliance and subsequent enforcement, the DOE is as yet under-resourced in terms of personnel and laboratory facilities.40 As far as the international area is concerned, Bangladesh has ratified three international environmental treaties: the Framework Convention on Climate Change; the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change; and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The country is yet, however, to ratify the treaty on the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

39 40

Ibid. Ibid.