Grade 8 BioTech subject, Research Proposal.docx

Genetic Engineering in Terms of Agriculture,
Medicine, Industrial Biotechnology
and Research











April Therese S. Ponte
VIII- PEARL
February 2014
CHAPTER I
GENETIC ENGINEERING

Introduction
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point mutations.
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified crops have been commercialized.
Genetic engineering alters the genetic make-up of an organism using techniques that remove heritable material or that introduces DNA prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then fused or hybridized with the host. This involves using recombinant nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection, macro-injection and micro-encapsulation techniques.
Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional animal and plant breeding, in vitro fertilization, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process. However the European Commission has also defined genetic engineering broadly as including selective breeding and other means of artificial selection. Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials into an organism.
If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic. Genetic engineering can also be used to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating a gene knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can also refer to conventional breeding methods. The Canadian regulatory system is based on whether a product has novel features regardless of method of origin. In other words, a product is regulated as genetically modified if it carries some trait not previously found in the species whether it was generated using traditional breeding methods (e.g., selective breeding, cell fusion, mutation breeding) or genetic engineering. Within the scientific community, the term genetic engineering is not commonly used; more specific terms such as transgenic are preferred.












CHAPTER II
HISTORY

Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection, and more recently through mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was first coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951,[22] one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase,[23] and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure.
Plants, animals or microorganisms that have changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. Bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically modified. Plasmid DNA containing new genes can be inserted into the bacterial cell and the bacteria will then express those genes. These genes can code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates. Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines. Most commercialized GMO's are insect resistant and/or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. They include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.
In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal. These achievements led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.
In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in theDiamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.
In the 1970s graduate student Steven Lindow of the University of Wisconsin–Madison with D.C. Arny and C. Upper found a bacterium he identified as P. syringae that played a role in ice nucleation and in 1977, he discovered a mutant ice-minus strain. Later, he successfully created a recombinant ice-minus strain. In 1983, a biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorization to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of P. syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into the environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher".
The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the USA in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides. The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialized in Europe. In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the USA. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, guidance on assessing the safety of genetically engineered plants and food emerged from organizations including the FAO and WHO.
In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome. The researchers added the new genome to bacterial cells and selected for cells that contained the new genome. To do this the cells undergoes a process called resolution, where during bacterial cell division one new cell receives the original DNA genome of the bacteria, whilst the other receives the new synthetic genome. When this cell replicates it uses the synthetic genome as its template. The resulting bacterium the researchers developed, named Synthia, was the world's first synthetic life form.






CHAPTER III
TECHNIQUES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Process
The first step is to choose and isolate the gene that will be inserted into the genetically modified organism. As of 2012, most commercialized GM plants have genes transferred into them that provide protection against insects or tolerance to herbicides. The gene can be isolated using restriction enzymes to cut DNA into fragments and gel electrophoresis to separate them out according to length. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can also be used to amplify up a gene segment, which can then be isolated through gel electrophoresis. If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may be present in a genetic library. If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can be artificially synthesized.
The gene to be inserted into the genetically modified organism must be combined with other genetic elements in order for it to work properly. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. As well as the gene to be inserted most constructs contain a promoter and terminator region as well as a selectable marker gene. The promoter region initiates transcription of the gene and can be used to control the location and level of gene expression, while the terminator region ends transcription. The selectable marker, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance to the organism it is expressed in, is needed to determine which cells are transformed with the new gene. The constructs are made using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests, ligations and molecular cloning. The manipulation of the DNA generally occurs within a plasmid.
The most common form of genetic engineering involves inserting new genetic material randomly within the host genome. Other techniques allow new genetic material to be inserted at a specific location in the host genome or generate mutations at desired genomic loci capable of knocking out endogenous genes. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to target desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers. The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced with the use of engineered nucleases such as zinc finger nucleases, engineered homing endonucleases, or nucleases created from TAL effectors. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can also be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout.





CHAPTER IV
APPLICATIONS

Medicinal Purposes
In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones, follistim (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines, and many other drugs.
Genetic engineering has produced a variety of drugs and hormones for medical use. For example, one of its earliest uses in pharmaceuticals was gene splicing to manufacture large amounts of insulin, made using cells of E. coli bacteria. Interferon, which is used to eliminate certain viruses and kill cancer cells, also is a product of genetic engineering, as are tissue plasminogen activator and urokinase, which are used to dissolve blood clots.
Another byproduct is a type of human growth hormone; it's used to treat dwarfism and is produced through genetically-engineered bacteria and yeasts. The evolving field of gene therapy involves manipulating human genes to treat or cure genetic diseases and disorders. Modified plasmids or viruses often are the messengers to deliver genetic material to the body's cells, resulting in the production of substances that should correct the illness. Sometimes cells are genetically altered inside the body; other times scientists modify them in the laboratory and return them to the patient's body.
Since the 1990s, gene therapy has been used in clinical trials to treat diseases and conditions such as AIDS, cystic fibrosis, cancer, and high cholesterol. Drawbacks of gene therapy are that sometimes the person's immune system destroys the cells that have been genetically altered, and also that it is hard to get the genetic material into enough cells to have the desired effect.
A majority of the findings of genetic research have proved to be of great significance to the medical world. With different kinds of vaccines, antibodies and vitamins developed and easily available in the market, many diseases are now under control and can be treated. These elements can be injected into the bodies of the patient. Chemotherapy and Radiology, which are very prominently used in cases of terminal diseases, are a gift of nothing but genetic research. Treatment of heredity diseases too is possible by manipulating the genes in the human body before birth. What could be better than having a baby devoid of any problems but with all wanted traits?
Research
In research, organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. Scientists are pondering over the possibility of making children with only the desirable traits are possible after the successes in cloning. This could do away with a majority of diseases and no vaccination would be required. Babies who have deficiency could be treated with additions being done to their genetic structure. Those who cannot reproduce due to medical complications have also seen positive results with surrogate parent's concept becoming available.
Agricultural
Genetic engineering is also used in agriculture to create genetically-modified crops or genetically-modified organisms.
Artificially synthesized fruits and vegetables is just one of the many aspects. Fertilizers and bio synthesizers which help in proper growth of crops at the same time killing the harmful bacteria have helped the agriculture sector. If added nutrients are added to the soil, the produce is of better quality and of higher quantity, both of which are very beneficial. The soil does not lose its potential to grow more crops which allow for the agriculture process to be carried out all through the year. Added experiments are being carried out to make plants which are self-dependent and would only be needed to sow once. Emphasis is also paid on discovering plants which do not require high amounts of water.
Industrial Purposes
Synthetically produced items are now available in the markets which are used as raw materials by the industrialists. Commercially viable items can also be produced by using the biological procedures like fermentation (in bakeries). Genetic Research has been able to tell exactly what percentage and what quantities of items should be used for optimum results making everything calculated and risk free.
Industrial applications include transforming microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast, or insect mammalian cells with a gene coding for a useful protein. Mass quantities of the protein can be produced by growing the transformed organism in bioreactors using fermentation, then purifying the protein.
Environment purposes
Organisms have been known to help in the bio degradation of waste materials. However, there are some materials like plastics which cannot be degraded by them. To help such causes, genetic research has produced modified microorganisms which not only have the capability of doing this but are also more efficient due to the speedy process. They are used in situations which may cause severe damage to the planet earth like oil spills.
Crime Investigation
The history of crime is as old as the history of mankind but the methods of searching for clues and criminals have been changing over the ages. Fingerprints are the unique identification of an individual but physical fingerprint is fraught with many errors due to the subjective nature of matching. Fingerprints do lie sometimes. DNA fingerprinting is much more reliable and is based on identifying individual scanning 13 DNA regions known as loci, and chance of one pattern matching another individual is very rare.
The very fact that DNA fingerprinting can be used to build the DNA profile of a person by just using their hair, blood and body tissues could be very useful. The DNA of these items that can be found on the crime scene can be matched against a pre-built database of citizens or suspected criminals in order to find the perpetrator or the culprit of the crime.















CHAPTER V
OPINION OF THE RESEARCHER

Genetic engineering is indeed useful for us people who tend to depend on technology. But even if genetic engineering is useful, there are still harmful effects or the pros and cons in using genetic engineering. Genetic engineering may hamper nutritional value in foods that are genetically modified. It may supersede natural weeds and may prove to be harmful to natural plants. And also, undesirable genetic mutations can lead to allergies in crops. It may also introduce harmful pathogens which may rise in horizontal gene transfer. Genetic engineering may lead to genetic defects which could be the side effects of gene therapy in humans. When we treat one defect, we may cause another.
So even if genetic engineering is useful in the fields of medicine, agriculture, research, industry, environment and crime investigation, remember that everything has a price. If one is useful, there will be side effects that may occur.