• \"Hagia Sophia\", \"Sophia\", \"Eusebius of Cesarea\", \"Jacob (James) of Edessa\", \"Jacom (James) of Nisibi\", \"Jacob (James) of Serugh\", \"John of Ephesus\", \"Paul Bedjan\", \"François Nau\", \"Alfonse Mingana\", \"IROC\", \"Société d\'Etudes Syriaques\"

I. Jurasz BEDJAN, Paul (1838–1920), Vincentian priest and scholar. Born in Khosrowa (Persia), B. was one of the first students of the Chaldean seminary founded in Khosrowa by the Vincentian Fathers, between 1856 and 1861 B. lived in Paris, carrying out his theological studies with a view to priestly ordination in the Vincentian Order. After ordination he worked as a missionary in Persia. Recalled to Paris in 1880, he lived in France, Belgium and Germany and died in Cologne. B. is known as the editor of various Syriac classics. Bibliography: A list of Bedjan’s publications is found in H. Murre-van den Berg, (see below), 367–369. WORKS (all published in Paris): Breviarium chaldaicum, 1–3, 1886–1887; Gregorii Barhebraei chronicon syriacum, 1890; Acta martyrium et sanctorum syriacae, 1– 7, 1890–1897; Nomocanon Gregorii Barhebraei, 1897; Homiliae selectae Mar Jacobi Sarugensis, 1–5, 1905–1910; Nestorius, Livre d’Héraclide de Damas, 1910. STUDIES: F. Combaluzier, ‘Bedjan, Paul’, DSp 1 (1932) 1329; J. M. Vosté, ‘Paul Bedjan, le lazariste persan’, OCP 11 (1945) 45–102; J. Pauels, ‘Bedjan, Paul’, LThK 2 2 (1958) 95; L. F. Hartman, ‘Bedjan, Paul’, NCE2 2:198; H. Murre-van den Berg, ‘Paul Bedjan, Missionary for Life (1838–1920)’, Homilies of Mar Jacob of Sarug, 6/2, P. Bedjan (ed.), Piscataway NJ 2006, 340–369; H. L. Murre-van den Berg, ‘Bedjan, Paul’, SH, 65–66.

EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA (265–339/340), Church historian. Born in Palestine, E. was formed by Pamphilus (d. ca. 310), Origen’s celebrated disciple, a scholar and a martyr. Becoming bishop of Caesarea around 313 E. played an important role in the Arian crisis as one of Arius’ supporters, even if he did not share all his positions. Excommunicated by a synod of Antioch in 324/325 (*Antioch: Synod of 324/325), he nonetheless took part in the Council of *Nicaea I (325), where he signed Arius’ condemnation and the new formula of faith, the Nicene creed (*NiceneConstantinopolitan Symbol). For all this, he remained close to Arianism in his theology. E. played an important part in the court of *Constantine the Great (d. 337), for whom he nurtured a great admiration. E. is considered to be the first Church historian. His vast literary production comprises historical works (Church History, History of the Martyrs of Palestine), among which those dedicated to Constantine occupy an important place (Life of Constantine, In Praise of Constantine, Constantine’s Speech in the Assembly of the Saints). As a theologian, E. also left behind dogmatic works (Against Marcellus, Church Theology), but especially apologetic works (Elementary General Introduction, Prophetic Eclogues, Against Herocles, Against Porphyrius, Apology for Origen, Preparation for the Gospel and Demonstration of the Gospel). His exegetical works have not always come down to us in their entirety (Onomasticon, Canons of the Gospel, Concordance, Gospel Questions and Answers, Comment to the Psalms); some exegetical works have reached us in chain form (Comment to Isaiah). We have also a short work written in Syriac and attributed to E. (The Star of the Magi). Given the antiquity of these traditions (around 411 for the Theophany) the writings form an important body for the history of Syriac literature. E. is important for the Christian East. In his Church History E. transmits the legend of Abgar (*Abgar) and refers to the archives, maybe those in *Edessa (HE 1.13). He also affords much information about the life of Christians in the Eastern part of the empire, such as the history of the Church of *Antioch, Tatian’s heresy and *Bardaisan’s doctrine. Besides, we have Syriac versions of some of his writings, especially the historical or the theologico-historical writings (Church History, Onomasticon, History of the Martyrs of Palestine, Chronicles, Theophany) and the biblical ones (Canons of the Gospel and some fragments from a lost work, Evangelical Questions). Bibliography: CPG 2 (1974) 3465–3507. WORKS: Theophania, S. Lee (ed.), London 1842; History of the Martyrs of Palestine, W. Cureton (tr.), London 1861; The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in Syriac, W. Wright, N. McLean (trs.), Cambridge MA 1898; H. Gressmann, Die Theophanie: Die griechischen Bruchstücke und Übersetzung der syrischen Überlieferung : Eusebius Werke 3/2, Leipzig 1904 (repr. Berlin 1992); ‘L’Onomasticon d’Eusèbe dans une ancienne traduction syriaque’, I. Rahmani, E. Power, E. Tisserand (trs.), ROC 23 (1922–1923) 225–270; ‘Die evangelischen Fragen und Lösungen des Eusebius in jakobitischer Überlieferung und deren nestorianische Parallelen’, G. Beyer (ed., tr.), OC 12–14 (1925) 30–70; 3, 1 (1927) 80–97; 3, 2 (1927) 57–69; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, R. J. Deferrari (tr., intr.), Washington DC 1953, 1:1–5, 2:6–10, Washington DC 1969; Eusebius, Life of Constantine, A. Cameron, S. G. Hall (tr., intr., com.), Oxford 1999. STUDIES: P. Keseling, ‘Die Chronik des Eusebius in der syrischen Überlieferung’, OC 3, 1, 23 (1927) 23–48; C. Curti, ‘Eusebio di Cesarea’, NDPAC 1 (2006) 1184–1853; Casiday & Norris, passim.

HAGIA SOPHIA, church of the Holy Wisdom, a recurring name for churches in the East; here we restrict ourselves to the cathedral of *Constantinople built by *Justinian I in 537–562, and transformed into a mosque in 1453, serving as a museum since 1934. History. The construction of the church might have begun in the age of *Constantine I, but it was finished and consecrated only under his son Constantius II in 360. In the uproar caused by the exile of *John Chrysostom it was set on fire under Emperor Arcadius in 404. It was rebuilt by *Theodosius II in 415, in whose reign HS became the cathedral of the capital and known in ca. 430 as ‘the Great Church’. It was burnt down once more in 532, during the uprising of Nika, due to the warring rival factions of the circus. *Justinian I undertook at once to rebuild it, thereby imparting to it much of its present form. Architects of the present building were the physicist *Isidor of Milet and the mathematician *Anthemius of Tralles. Details of the construction are found in *Procopius of Caesarea (Buildings 1:1, 20–78). In 587

the emperor inaugurated the new church. A little later, the earth tremors of 553, 557 and 558 led to the collapse of the central cupola. Its reconstruction was entrusted to Isidore the Young, who corrected his father’s project by raising the cupola higher than previously. The new consecration took place in 562. On that occasion Paul Silentiarius wrote a poem (PG 86:2219–2258), a vivid description (Gr. ekphrasis) of Hagia Sophia which enters into the details of its architecture and the decoration. Earth tremors and fires destroyed the building so that *Basil II asked the Armenian architect Trdat to restore the cupola. These important works lasted six years, until 994. During the Fourth *Crusade (1204) HS, after being pillaged by the Latins, became the cathedral of King Baldwin I. At this time numerous relics preserved in its treasury were dispersed. When the Byzantines recovered Constantinople in 1261, they found HS in a depleted state. Emperor *Andronicus II Palaiologus initiated in 1327 the works which, interrupted by earth tremors, dragged on until 1354. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks, HS became a mosque, the ‘Ayasofya’. The sultan, Mehmed II, ordered the building to be restored and converted into a mosque by whitewashing the mosaics with lime. Only the image of the Virgin *Theotokos in the central apse was spared for almost a century. In the 16 th century the Ottoman architect Sinan reinforced the building by adding massive external buttresses; moreover, he constructed two minarets, the Sultan’s loggia, the mausoleum of Selim II (1577) and that of two other sultans. In 1739 Sultan Mah ḥmud I transformed the building into a vast social complex, adding a Koranic school (*Madrasah), a pharmacy, a library and a fountain for ablutions. In 1847–1849 HS was restored for the first time by the brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati, Swiss architects, on the invitation of Sultan Abdülmecid. Besides the consolidation of the cupola and the vaults they understook research on the decoration as well as on the cleaning and restoration of the mosaics. It was in this period that enormous circular plaques with the name of Allah, Muh ḥammad and the first caliphs on them were hung in HS. On his coming to power Mustafa Kemal Atatürk transformed the church from a place of cult to a museum. He decided to continue the work of restoration, entrusted to the Byzantine Institute of America. In 1993, a UNESCO mission ascertained the bad state of the building while promoting new efforts at restoration. Architecture. From an architectural viewpoint HS combines, in length, the plan of the basilica with a central octagonal plan. Its architects were inspired by the Pantheon in Rome, and yet created a unique work, which in turn became the model par excellence of Byzantine architecture and inspiration for Arab, Ottoman, Venetian and Latin architects. The cupola of HS evoked the highest admiration. Resting on a gallery of arcades comprising 40 windows, it creates the sensation of an incredible lightness. Its weight is borne by four concave triangular °pendentives which transmit it to four massive columns supported by four semi-cupolas to the east and the west (the entrance). On the contrary, to the north and the south the arcs are closed by walls in a semi-circle, pierced by many windows. This sophisticated arrangement is the cause of the fragility of the construction, exposed moreover to the peril of earth tremors. Decoration. For the construction of his cathedral, Justinian employed elements taken from ancient pagan temples (Gr. spolia). The places of origin of the columns of HS are not quite certain, but the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, the temple of Helius in Rome and even the temple of Zeus-Marduk at Baalbek are often mentioned; the granite columns come from Egypt. The sultans continued to deposit in HS the vestiges of Antiquity. The Hellenistic vases of Pergamum were brought at the order of Sultan Murad II. The beautiful bronze door of the lateral entrance comes from the Greek Temple of Tarsus. The revestment of the walls with plaques goes back to the age of Justinian, as Paul Silentiarius’ poem witnesses. According to him, Justinian’s church was decorated with the opus sectile, the art of forming figures by inlaying materials in floors, walls, ceilings and so forth, principally having plant and geometrical motifs. The figurative decorations were destroyed by the iconoclasts, so that the most ancient mosaics of HS date from the second half of the 9th century. On the two sides are the medallions of the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Michael. The mosaic of the imperial door (9th–10th cent.) represents the emperor (*Leo VI the Wise) in the posture of proskynesis before Christ *Pantocrator on the throne. On both sides is the medallion of the *Theotokos and of the archangel Gabriel. The mosaic on the south-west (944), discovered by the brothers Fossati, represents the Blessed Virgin Mary on her throne, with the infant Jesus on his knees. To her left stands Emperor Constantine Lecapenus (r. 920–944) with the model of the city in his hands, while to her right Emperor Justinian I holds a model of HS. The grand mosaic of the apse (inaugurated in 867) represents the Theotokos on the throne, with Jesus on his knees. It is considered to be a reconstruction of the 6 th-century mosaic destroyed by the iconoclasts. On both sides are fragments of the angels Gabriel and Michael dating back to the 9th century. A small mosaic on the ceiling of the second floor, one of those discovered by the Fossati brothers, is of the Emperor Alexander (ca. 870–913; r. 912–913). A mosaic on the southern gallery (11th cent.) represents Christ *Pantocrator in a blue mantle, flanked by Emperor *Constantine IX Monomachus (to the right) and by Empress Zoe (978–1050) to his left. A mosaic of the Comneni (1122) is located in the southern gallery. It represents the Theotokos with the infant Jesus on her knees. To her left stands John II Comnenus, to her left the Empress Irene. Her elder son and co-emperor, Alexius I Comnenus (r. 1081–1118), is represented on a side pilaster.

The mosaic of the Deesis (ca. 1261) is the third on the imperial loggia. It represents Christ the Pantocrator between the Virgin Mary (to the right) and *John the Baptist (to the left), both in a posture interceding for humanity. Fragments of mosaics with the images of saintly bishops are found on the northern tympanum, that decorative triangular wall-surface on the entrance within an arch. Symbolic name of the Hagia Sophia and its symbolic role. The name of HS refers to the ‘Divine Wisdom’, with all the theological richness such an expression evokes (*Sophia). Justinian I fixed its interpretation by consecrating the church to ‘Holy Wisdom – the Logos of God’ (1 Cor 1:23–24). HS was the church of the emperor, the place of all the religious ceremonies held in the presence of the sovereign, as *Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus says in On Ceremonies. Only in the 11th century, at the time of *Michael Cerularius, did the church pass under the jurisdiction of the patriarch. In Byzantine literature HS becomes a symbol of the Byzantine Empire with its political and religious aspirations. Texts: PG 86:2219–2258; Procopius of Caesarea, 7: Buildings, H. B. Dewing, G. Downey (trs.), London 1971, 8–32; Paul the Silentiary, ‘Description of Hagia Sophia’, Three Political Voices from the Age of Justionian, P. N. Bell (tr., notes, intr.), Liverpool 2009, 189– 212. STUDIES: R. J. Mainstone, Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great Church, London 1978; W. E. Kaegi, ‘Nika Revolt’; B. Baldwin, ‘Prokopios of Caesarea’; B. Baldwin, A. Cutler, ‘Paul Silentiarios’, ODB 3:1473; 1609; 1732; R. Nelson, Hagia Sophia, 1850–1950, Chicago 2004; J. D. Alchernes, ‘Art and Architecture in the Age of Justinian’, The Age of Justinian, M. Masa (ed.), Cambridge UK 2005, 343–375; F. Simok, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul 2005.

JACOB (JAMES) OF EDESSA (ca. 633–708). Theologian, philosopher, exegete, historian and Syrian grammarian, J. was from the diocese of Antioch. He began his studies in the Monastery of Qennesrin, completing them at *Alexandria. Named bishop of *Edessa in the 680s, he remained there for four years. When he failed to reform the monasteries of his diocese, he retired to the Monastery of St James of Kaysum and then to that of Tell ‘Adda, where he taught Sacred Scripture and dedicated himself to revising the Syriac text of the OT. At the death of Habib, his successor on the throne of Edessa, J. re-occupied the episcopal see for another four years. He died at the Monastery of Tell ‘Adda. J.’s principal works were the revision of the Syriac version of the OT, and commentaries on Scripture, of which his Commentary on Genesis, or the Hexaemeron, has been preserved. As a theologian and philologist, J. is the author of the new Syriac version of the Cathedral Homilies and of the *Octoechos of *Severus of Antioch, once translated by Paul of Edessa. J. probably also revised the Syriac translation of the works of *Gregory of Nazianzus. As a historian, J. continued the work of *Eusebius of Caesarea (up to 692) and translated from the Greek the apocryphal story of the Recabites. Additionally, a canonical treatise on the marriage impediment of kinship is attributed to him. Some liturgical texts are probably his work as well: the revision of the liturgy of St James, the liturgical calendar, the ordo of baptism and marriage. As a philologist, besides the numerous translations mentioned above, of which we have only fragments, J. is also known as the author of a Syriac grammar and of letters on orthography. Studies: Baumstark, GSL, 248–256; Urbina, 177–183; A. Vööbus, ‘The Discovery of new Cycles of Canons and Resolutions Composed by Ja‘qob of Edessa’, OCP 34 (1968) 412–419; E. J. Revell, ‘The Grammar of Jacob of Edessa’, PdO 3 (1972) 365–374; F. Graffin, Jacques d’Edesse, réviseur des Homélies de Sévère d’Antioche d’après le ms. syriaque BM Add. 12159, Rome 1978, 243–255; S. P. Brock, ‘Jacob of Edessa’s Discourse on the Myron’, OC 63 (1979) 20–36; J.-M. Sauget, ‘Giacomo di Edessa’, NDPAC 2 (2007) 2145; A. G. Salvesen, ‘Yaʻqub of Edessa’, SH, 432–433.

JACOB (JAMES) OF NISIBIS (fl. 325), St. In 308/309 J. was ordained bishop of Nisibis, where he constructed a Church in 313–320. He took part in the Council of *Nicaea I (325). Praised by *Ephrem the Syrian in his Carmina Nisibena, *Theodoret of Cyrrhus included an account of J.’s life in his Philotheos historia. After Nisibis came to form part of the Armenian territory in the 3 rd century (*Armenia), J. entered into Armenian literature, as an Armenian version of the works of Aphraates has been attributed to him. The Armenian Life of J. is full of legendary elements, e.g., the discovery of the remains of Noah’s ark. P. Peeters, ‘La légende de Saint Jacques de Nisibe’, AB 38 (1920) 285–373; J. M. Fiey, Nisibe, métropole syriaque orientale et ses suffragants des origines à nos jours, Louvain 1977; M. van Esbroeck, ‘Jacob of Nisibis’, EEC 1:429; Baum & Winkler, 21; Casiday & Norris, 74, 126–127, 132, 657; J. P. Amar, ‘Yaʻqub of Nisibis’, SH, 433.

JACOB (JAMES) OF SERUGH (ca. 452–ca. 520). A Syrian theologian and poet, called by *Barhebraeus (d. 1286) ‘the flute of the Spirit and harp of the Orthodox Church’, J. began as a disciple in the famous school of *Edessa. When in the time of *Narsai the school embraced Nestorian theology (*Nestorianism), J. opted for the theological position of *Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) and broke with the school, although he all the same remained close to *Severus of Antioch. Towards the end of his life J. was ordained bishop, first of Haura and then of Batnan, both centres in the province of Sarug. Like many Western Syrians, J. knew Greek but wrote only in Syriac (*Syriac Language). From his vast literary production we have most of all poetical homilies drawing their inspiration from the Bible according to the practice of the School of Edessa. According to tradition J. wrote his first poem, On Ezechiel’s carriage, when he was 18

years old. For the Syrians he was above all a great poet, who composed 750 mēmrē (*Memra) of which today some 250 survive. J.’s poetical texts are to be found in the liturgical books of the Western Syrian and Maronite rites. He is also considered the author of an anaphora edited by Renaudot, and of a taksa, or ordo, of baptism, edited by J. S. *Assemani. Theologically, J. embraced a moderate *Monophysitism, but was well-disposed towards dialogue with the other theological currents. His letters to the monks of Mar Bassus show him to be non-Chalcedonian (*Chalcedon), the efforts of Assemani notwithstanding. Confronted by extremist ideas, J. stands out for his more moderate approach. Taking the creation of the world as its point of departure, his *Christology examines anthropological and soteriological (*Soteriology) questions. Texts: BO 1 (1719) 305–340; P. *Bedjan (ed.), Homiliae selectae Mar Jacobi Sarugensis, 1–6, Paris 1905–1910 (repr. 2006); the catalogue of mss in A. Vööbus, Handschriftliche Überlieferung des Memre-Dichtung des Ja‘qob von Serug, Louvain 1973–1980, 1–4; N. Q. Macabasag, ‘Jacob of Serugh’s Memra on the “Emmanuel”: Translation and Analysis’, The Harp 29 (2014) 353–423. STUDIES: Chabot, 62– 63; T. Jansma, ‘Encore le Credo de J. de Sarug’, OS 19 (1965) 75–88, 193–236, 331–370, 475–510; T. Jansma, ‘Die Christologie von J. von Serug’, Mus 77 (1965) 5–46; F. Graffin, ‘Jacques de Saroug’, DSp 8 (1974) 56–60; R. C. Chesnut, Three Monophysite Christologies: Severus of Antioch, Philoxenus of Mabbug, and Jacob of Sarug, Oxford 1976; W. Hage, ‘Jakob von Serugh’, TRE 16 (1987) 470–474; J. Puthuparampil, The Mariological Thought of Mar Jacob of Serugh (451–521), Rome 2002; Casiday & Norris, 516; J. Gribomont, ‘Giacomo di Sarug’, NDPAC 2 (2007) 2153; Sources for the Study of the School of Nisibis, A. H. Becker (tr., intr.), Liverpool 2008, 69; Jacob of Serugh and His Times: Studies in Sixth-Century Syriac Christianity, G. A. Kiraz (ed.), Piscataway NJ 2010; T. Kollamparampil, Salvation in Christ according to Jacob of Serugh: An Exegetico-theological Study on the Homilies of Jacob of Serugh on the Feasts of Our Lord , Piscataway NJ 2010; S. P. Brock, ‘Yaʻqub of Serugh’, SH, 433–435; N. Q. Macabasag, The Annunciation (Lk 1:26–38) in Jacob of Serugh and in the Early Syriac Fathers, Rome 2012 (unpubl. doct. thesis, PIO).

JOHN OF EPHESUS (of Asia, ca. 507–after 585), historian. J. became a monk in Syria in 529. He arrived in *Constantinople in 535 (or perhaps in 540), where he enjoyed *Justinian I’s favour. The emperor appointed him administrator of the goods of the monophysite (*Monophysitism) community in the capital and then sent him on a mission to evangelize the pagans in Asia Minor, whence his second byname, ‘J. of Asia’. In Asia, J. encountered *Jacob Baradaeus, who ordained him bishop of Ephesus probably in 558. Yet J. does not seem to have remained long in his see, for he continued to live in Constantinople. After Justinian’s death in 565, J. suffered various persecutions, especially after being appointed head of the non-Chalcedonian (*Chalcedon; *Chalcedonian Churches, Non-) party at the capital in 566. His historical works are the most important source for the ecclesiastical history of his era. J.’s work on the union of the Churches, Defence of the Oriental Synod, is lost, although his Lives of the Oriental Blessed, written between 566– 568, is still extant. This is an anthology of 58 short biographies, mostly about the monks of his ecclesial party; in it, J. furnishes information about the ascetical life of their times. His major work is the Ecclesiastical History; its first part, which starts with Julius Caesar, has been lost, but we have a partial reconstruction of the second part which goes up to the year 571, while a third part ending in 585 is virtually complete. In spite of a certain confessional preference in his account of events, J. remains a relatively trustworthy historian, and his work has been used by other Syrian historians, such as Michael the Syrian and Ps-*Dionysius. Works: The Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John Bishop of Ephesus, W. Cureton (ed.), Oxford 1853; Extracts from the Ecclesiastical history of John bishop of Ephesus, J. P. Margoliouth (ed.), Oxford 1909; Lives of the Eastern Saints, 1–3, E. W. Brooks (ed., tr.), Paris 1923–1925. STUDIES: Chabot, 74–76; Baumstark, GSL, 181–182; Urbina, 166–167; D. Stiernon, ‘Jean d’Ephèse’, DSp 8 (1974) 484–486; J. Gribomont, ‘Giovanni, di Efeso’, DIP 4 (1977) 1223; S. Ashbrook Harvey, Asceticism and Society in Crisis. John of Ephesus and the Lives of the Eastern Saints, Berkeley 1990; J. F. Krastel, ‘John of Ephesus’, NCE 2 7:967; P. Rousseau, ‘Late Roman Christianities’, The Cambridge History of Christianity, 3: Early Medieval Christianities, ca. 600–ca. 1100, T. F. X. Noble, J. M. H. Smith (eds.), Cambridge UK 2008, 21–45.

MINGANA, Alphonse (1878–1937) theologian and Orientalist. He was born on 23 December 1878 in Northern Iraq (Saranas an-Nasra) into the family of a Chaldean parish priest and as a young man received a theological formation from the French Dominicans at Mosul. After the theological course of studies with a specialization in Oriental languages, M. was ordained priest in 1902 and named professor of Syriac and Arabic languages and literature in the Chaldean seminary. After breaking with the Chaldean Church in 1913 M. left for England. Between 1915 and 1932 he worked in the ms department in the John Rylands Library in Manchester. At the suggestion of the Selly Oak College in Birmingham, M. travelled to Iraq and Egypt in 1924, 1925 and 1929 in search of Syriac and Arabic mss, which are at the origin of the famous ‘Mingana Collection’. He died on 5 December 1937. Among his works are editions (Chronic of Arbela, homilies of *Narsai, Odes of Salomon, Book of Treasures of *Jacob (James) of Edessa), historical works and numerous catalogues of mss.

Works: Early Christian Mystics, Cambridge UK 1934. STUDIES : S. K. Samir, Alphonse Mingana 1878–1937 and his Contribution to Early Christian–Muslim Studies, Birmingham 1990; J. M. Vosté, ‘Alphonse Mingana: A propos du ‘Catalogue of the Mingana Collection’, OCP 7 (1941) 514–518; S. K. Samir, ‘Mingana, Alphons’, LThK 3 7 (1998) 270; G. A. Kiraz, ‘Mingana, Alphonse’, SH, 292– 293.

NAU, François-Nicolas (1864–1931). One of the greatest French Orientalists of the early 20 th century. Ordained a priest in 1887, he pursued studies in the exact sciences and became doctor of mathematics in 1890, a subject he taught at the Institut Catholique in Paris until the end of his days. His interest in the East started in an encounter with R. Graffin, professor at the same Institute. Between 1892 and 1895 N. dedicated himself to Syriac studies and prepared the edition of the astronomical works of *Barhebraeus (1895). Soon afterwards he became a member of the Société Asiatique. In the year 1903 N. was ordained *chorbishop of the Maronite Church. Between 1900 and 1908 N. participated in the works on the polyglot edition of the Bible. The collaboration with R. Graffin was decisive for his works; with him he worked together on the *Patrologia Orientalis and later on the Revue de l’Orient chrétien (here abbreviated as ROC), of which he was first secretary and then director. These works suffered when N. moved to the University of Strasbourg (1919–1927), retaining only the course of mathematics in Paris, at the Institut Catholique and elsewhere. Works AND TEXTS: Bardaisan, Le Livre des lois des pays, Paris 1899; Bar Hebraeus, Le livre de l’ascension de l’esprit sur la forme du ciel et de la terre, Paris 1899–1900; Lettres choisies de Jacques d’Edesse, Paris 1906; Ancienne littérature canonique syriaque, Paris 1906– 1912; ‘Histoires des solitaires égyptiens’, ROC 12 (1907) 13 (1908) 14 (1909) 17 (1912) 18 (1913); Nestorius: Le livre d’Héraclide de Damas, Paris 1910. STUDIES: M. Brière, ‘L’abbé François Nau’, Journal asiatique 233 (1933) 149–180; L. F. Hartman, ‘Nau, François Nicolas’, NCE1 10 (1967) 281; J. Trinquet, ‘Nau (François-Nicolas)’, Catholicisme: Hier – Aujourd’hui – Demain, Paris 1982, 9:1114–1116; F. Briquel-Chatonnet, ‘Nau, François’, SH, 305.

SOCIETÉ DES ETUDES SYRIAQUES (SES). This society was founded in Paris in 2003 at the Collège de France and the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Its president is Alain Desreumaux. Acquiring at once an international standing, it pursues the scientific study of history, art and the literature of Syriac-speaking Christians irrespective of the Church to which they belong. SES organizes conferences and study days the proceedings of which are later published in the new series ‘Etudes syriaques’ (Inscriptions syriaques, 2003; Apocryphes syriaques; Liturgies syriaques, 2005). The site of SES is www.etudessyriaques.org.

SOPHIA. The Greek word S. means wisdom. Long before it was adopted by patristic theology it had been in current use in both Greek philosophy and the OT. Beyond the meaning of S. as a knowledge at once vital and practical, there is also a personified S. The figure of personified wisdom appears in the books of the OT (Wis Sol, Ben Sir, Prov) under the features of a woman of quasi-divine status and close to God (Prov 8:12–31; Ben Sir 8:1–23; Wis Sol 7:22–8,8) a teacher of human beings (Prov 1, 20–33; Eccl 4:11–19) and mistress of the house of wisdom (Prov 9:1–6). The Fathers are fully aware how difficult it is to define her position in relation to God. In the NT we come across a similar plurality of meanings of S. (see Mt 11:19; Lk 7:35; 1 Cor 1:17–25). Paul’s identification of Wisdom with Christ (1 Cor 1:24) proves decisive in the Fathers’ attempt to work out the meaning of S. Naturally, the Fathers did not intend to elaborate a systematic doctrine of S.; all that we have comes from writings of a very different character. Their reflections on wisdom are made above all on the occasion of the reading of the pertinent scriptural passages on which they then commented. We thus come across three approaches to S. in patristic reflections on the subject. a) S. as a Christian doctrine. The idea is close to wisdom in Greek philosophy, which, from Plato to Aristotle, knew an ideal or ‘metaphysical’ S. which served as the foundation of philosophy. The view that Christianity is the true and only philosophy, because grounded in ultimate wisdom, is found in Justin, *Origen, Ambrose, Basil of Caesarea (*Basil the Great), *John Chrysostom and *Augustine. We come across the appeal to wisdom in the polemics against gnosis (*Clement of Alexandria; *Gnosis and Gnostism; *Irenaeus,) and against pagan philosophy (*Eusebius of Caesarea, Augustine). b) Wisdom as appertaining to God (corresponding to what is called a ‘divine attribute’ in Western theology, and a ‘divine energy’ in its Eastern counterpart). This idea appears most of all in primitive Trinitarian theology, especially if monarchianist, or modalist, in inspiration (Paul of Samosata, Marcellus of Ancyra), and then in the first Arian theology. That we may not separate wisdom from God (wisdom is to be assigned to the three Persons of the Trinity) was taken up by Nicene theology, i.e. by proponents of the views approved at Nicaea I in 325 (*Athanasius, *Gregory of Nazianzus). This approach was then developed by other Fathers (*Cyril of Alexandria, Augustine, *Pseudo-Dionysius). c) ChristWisdom. This identification was always present in the Fathers and, indeed, the idea of Christ-Wisdom was often near to that of Christ-Logos, the Word from God’s mouth being Wisdom. The oldest Wisdom *Christology was conditioned by Trinitarian theology. During the Arian crisis, Prov 8:22 was exploited by the Arians as a proof that the Son was but a creature, although the first and most noble of all creatures (*Arianism). This offered St Athanasius a golden opportunity

to distinguish between uncreated (because divine) and created wisdom. Interpretation of this verse as a reference to the human nature assumed by the Logos continued at the time of the councils of *Ephesus (431) and *Chalcedon (451). In the theology following Chalcedon, probably because of the numerous problems of interpretation associated with sapiential literature, wisdom Cristology was abandoned in favour of Logos Christology, as in the Tomus ad Flavianum (*Leo I, pope). Two further meanings of S. should here be noted. 1) Wisdom-Holy Spirit. This identification was rare in the theology of the Fathers, but is present in Theophilus of Antioch, Irenaeus and later in Cyril of Alexandria. 2) Wisdom as a woman (*Sophiology). This particular aspect did not find much favour with the Fathers. Origen suggests going beyond the grammatical gender which he suspected of anthropomorphism. The feminine personification of S., seldom brought out in the writings of the Fathers, was considered to be a rhetorical means proper to christological prophecies and therefore in need of an explanation to explore its meaning (Marcellus of Ancyra, *Eusebius of Caesarea, *Gregory of Nazianzus and *Epiphanius). M. Simonetti, ‘Sull’interpretazione patristica di Prov 8, 22’, Studi sull’arianesimo, Rome 1965, 9–81; La Sagesse biblique de l’Ancien au Nouveau Testament, J. Trublet (ed.), Paris 1995; Ecclesia, 426–427; Valliere, passim.