Haṭha Yoga Project Proposal

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ERC Consolidator Grant 2014 Research proposal [Part B2)]1 Part B2: The scientific proposal Section a. State-of-the-art and objectives Yoga is one of the world’s most popular and fastest growing pastimes. In 2012 the American magazine Yoga Journal estimated that there were 20.4 million regular practitioners of yoga in the United States (8.7% of adults) and that the yoga business there was worth $10.3 billion, up from 15.8 million practitioners and $5.7 billion in 2008.2 Yoga is also central to Indian religious practice and culture. From probable origins among heterodox ascetics in the first millennium BCE it gradually became part of almost all of India’s religious traditions. Key to its importance in both the modern world and Indian religious traditions are its physical techniques. These are as ancient as yoga itself but were not codified in texts until the beginning of the second millennium CE, when a corpus of works on haṭha — as the method of yoga in which physical practices predominate is called — was composed. Despite its importance for an understanding of India's religious and cultural history, and modern globalised yoga, serious scholarship on haṭha yoga is in its infancy. The only sources on it from the period in which it was formalised (11th-14th centuries CE) are textual manuals of its practice, the majority of which were written in Sanskrit. Until recently, no texts on haṭha yoga from this formative period had been edited and discussions on the history and development of haṭha yoga tended to be based on three later works, the Haṭhapradīpikā, Śivasaṃhitā and Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā, which were edited uncritically and translated a century ago. This partial view of the tradition, together with an unwarranted linking of yoga practice with south Indian Siddha alchemical traditions,3 has resulted in analyses of haṭha yoga which preliminary critical examination of the early haṭha texts shows to be flawed.4 Over the last two decades attempts have been made to improve the textual foundation of the study of haṭha yoga, in particular through pioneering work by Christian Bouy and subsequent critical editions of yoga texts by three doctoral students of Professor Alexis Sanderson (James Mallinson, Csaba Kiss and Jason Birch) at the University of Oxford,5 but these have only served to highlight the inadequacy of our understanding of the field as a whole. Completely absent from academic discourse on haṭha yoga has been analysis drawn from ethnographic observation of its ascetic practitioners in India today, who are the direct heirs to the earliest yogis. This is partly because such ethnography is extremely difficult: ascetic yogis are very few in number and will usually only divulge their methods to initiates of their traditions. It is also because among the Nāths, the ascetic order in which haṭha yoga is said to have originated, ethnographers have been unable to find practitioners of the physical methods of haṭha yoga.6 This is explained in scholarship with claims that the Nāth order is degenerate and that the practice of haṭha yoga has died out among its members as a result. When ascetics of other traditions are seen to practise it, it is thought to be a corrupt form of an original Nāth yoga.7 I (James Mallinson, the PI) have spent much of the last twenty years studying the texts of haṭha yoga and living with its ascetic practitioners in India. My textual studies and fieldwork have made it clear to me that 1 This is a revision and abridgement of the original Part B2 of the research proposal. The proposal was successful and the project started in October 2015. 2 Comparable figures on the practice of yoga in Europe are unavailable. 3 This connection appeared in one of haṭha yoga’s first studies (Sastri 1956) and has been repeated in all subsequent works. Influential works on yoga that draw on Sastri include Eliade 1973 and White 1996. 4 Mallinson forthcoming (2014). 5 See Bouy 1994, Mallinson 2007, Kiss 2009 and Birch 2013. Editions of some later (post-1450 CE) texts on haṭha yoga have been produced by the Kaivalyadhama and Lonavla Research Institutes, but, despite their being founded on collations of large numbers of manuscripts, philological and historiographic acumen has not been applied in their selection of variant readings or their contextualisation of the texts within the broader history of yoga. 6 E.g. Bouillier 2008. 7 E.g. Eliade 1973:302 and van der Veer 1989:92.

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the received history of haṭha yoga and its practitioners is in need of revision. In particular, my textual studies have shown that the texts of haṭha yoga were not developed exclusively by yogis of the Nāth tradition, but that a quite separate and older ascetic tradition was responsible for developing haṭha yoga’s physical practices and composing several of its texts. Furthermore, my ethnographic observations have shown me that this latter tradition is alive and well in India today, where it is represented by lineages found within the two largest Indian ascetic orders, the Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs and the Rāmānandīs. The Hatha Yoga Project seeks to draw on these two untapped sources, haṭha yoga’s textual corpus and its current ascetic practitioners, in order to reconstruct the history of its practice. Its central questions will be: - What were haṭha yoga’s practices at the time of its formalisation? - Why was it formalised when it was? - By whom and for whom were its texts written? - How were its texts used? - Who practised it? - Was it practised by laypersons? - Why was it practised? - How and why did its practices and practitioners change over time? - What constituted yoga in India on the eve of the development of modern globalised yoga? - Which of the practices of modern globalised yoga are found in premodern haṭha yoga? - How and why do today’s ascetics practise haṭha yoga? - How is ascetic practice of yoga in India today changing under the influence of modern globalised yoga? In order to answer these questions the HYP will critically edit and translate ten Sanskrit manuals on haṭha yoga. Six are from the period in which it was first formalised (11th-14th centuries CE) and four chart key moments in its subsequent development up to the 19th century. The texts are each important subjects of study in their own right (for their details see below); as a whole they chart the development of the haṭha yoga tradition. In order to contextualise each text within the corpus, specific questions will be asked of it: Where, when, why and for whom was it composed? Within what sectarian tradition? What verses does it share with other texts? What practices does it teach? What is the purpose of those practices? The findings drawn from the texts will be complemented by other sources, in particular ethnographic study of ascetic practitioners of haṭha yoga in India today, which, as my preliminary work has already shown, can shed considerable light on the history of its practices and social context. Both the textual and ethnographic sources of the HYP are in danger of being lost. Most of the manuscripts of the texts to be studied were written on paper and are located in sub-Himalayan South Asia where extremes of climate and the depredations of insects mean that they rarely last more than 300 years before crumbling to dust. Prior to the advent of printing in India such manuscripts were copied before deteriorating but this practice is now very unusual. Furthermore, some of the texts crucial for understanding the early history of haṭha yoga (particularly the Vivekamārtaṇḍa and Gorakṣaśataka) fell into obscurity or were heavily redacted soon after their composition and are only available in old manuscripts in poor condition. Time is of the essence for all studies dependent upon Indian manuscripts, but it is particularly so in the case of those on the subject of haṭha yoga. The ethnographic picture is changing spectacularly fast under the influence of information technology and the rapid proliferation of modern globalised yoga. Indian ascetics distinguish between their traditional yoga practice and the modern forms taught in Indian metropolises and on Indian television (some refer to the former with the Hindi yog and the latter with the Sanskrit/English yoga) but their practices are starting to be influenced by those of modern yoga. Three years ago at a Nāth monastery at Jwalamukhi in Himachal Pradesh I was surprised when a young Nāth ascetic was said by his peers to be a master of yogic āsanas or postures. Throughout my previous fieldwork I (like other ethnographers of the Nāths) had singularly failed to find any Nāth practitioners of the physical techniques of haṭha yoga, but “Yogī Bābā” Anūp Nāth, after verifying my insider credentials, gave me a virtuoso display of contortionist āsanas. Some of the practices he showed me have no premodern Indian antecedents but are found in modern globalised yoga. Thus it appears that the “Pizza Effect”, in which cultural exports return home in a modified form, is changing the yoga

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practice of modern ascetics. When I asked Anūp Nāth from where he had learnt his yoga he told me that it had come to him “automatically, direct from guru Gorakhnāth” (Gorakhnāth was the c. 12th-century founder of his order). Anūp Nāth also had a smartphone. When I introduced my companion as a television actor, he handed it to me and demanded that I find a clip of him on YouTube. Anūp Nāth had also been viewing websites on modern yoga and lamented to me, “If only I knew English, I would be world-famous”. I have remained in touch with Anūp Nāth and last saw him at the Kumbh Melā festival at Allahabad in early 2013, where he and another Nāth ascetic were daily performing displays of āsanas on a stage at the front of the Nāth camp. This innovation authorised by the order’s senior officiants appears to be a response to the rising global popularity of yoga and the resultant increase in interest among lay Indians, and in the numbers of foreigners coming to India in search of ascetic practitioners of yoga. As a result of the latter certain Nāths have begun to recruit foreign disciples, particular from countries of the former USSR. The ethnographic fieldwork undertaken as part of the HYP, in addition to making these significant developments known to scholars of Indian religion, will seek to document the traditional yoga practices of Indian ascetics before they change further under the influence of modern yoga. I have already presented some of the findings of my textual and ethnographic research in a series of articles, encyclopedia entries and book chapters. For some years I have been working on a monograph which will ultimately present a comprehensive overview of early haṭha yoga and its practitioners. It has become clear to me, however, that for the monograph to be completely rigorous its philological sections need to be grounded in critical editions of the texts it draws upon. Furthermore, additional ethnographic fieldwork would greatly benefit both the monograph’s treatment of early haṭha yoga’s practices and the development of its practitioners’ different sects. And a thorough treatment of traditional haṭha yoga as a whole would require much more than a monograph; thus the idea for the Hatha Yoga Project was born. I had planned to include in the monograph a bare-bones survey of haṭha yoga’s textual development after its classical synthesis in the 15th-century Haṭhapradīpikā. In 2013, however, I examined the doctoral thesis of Jason Birch, which was an edition of the Amanaska, a yoga text whose two parts date to the 11th and 16th centuries CE, but which were widely drawn on in subsequent texts on yoga compiled and composed by scholars from the 16th to 19th centuries. Birch provided a comprehensive survey of these later texts in his thesis and has obtained copies of several of their manuscripts. During this period the practices of haṭha yoga taught in texts proliferated enormously and haṭha yoga finally became completely integrated with orthodox Hinduism, through, for example, the incorporation of passages — and sometimes whole texts — from the earlier corpus in a series of newly composed Yoga Upaniṣads. Thorough study of textual and other sources from this period would provide a picture of how haṭha yoga developed after its formative period and of what constituted yoga practice in India on the eve of its co-option into modern globalised yoga. In my research I have not worked closely with many texts on yoga composed during this period but I have attempted to delineate the contemporaneous development of the orders of yoga-practising ascetics. That of the Nāths seems relatively clear (as outlined in Mallinson 2011b), but the complex early modern history of the Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs and Rāmānandīs remains to be mapped out satisfactorily. These orders were responsible for the production of the texts on haṭha yoga in the early modern period and a close study of them will undoubtedly contribute to our understanding of their development as sects. Birch is keen to carry out postdoctoral research on the texts of this period and so I have invited him to work on the HYP, both as an editor or co-editor of some of the texts of the corpus and as the author of a monograph on haṭha yoga in early modern India. Until recently I considered my research areas to be quite distinct from modern globalised yoga. But with the rise in its popularity many scholars and practitioners of modern yoga have looked to my work to gain an understanding of modern yoga’s antecedents and I myself have sought to understand modern yoga better in order to make sense of its new influence on traditional ascetic practice, and to be better aware of the concerns of some readers of my work. It was Mark Singleton’s groundbreaking doctoral thesis, revised for publication as Yoga Body, that first made sense for me of the development of globalised modern yoga. Just as my interest was turning towards modern yoga, Singleton’s was turning to yoga’s premodern history in order to understand better the Indian antecedents of modern physical yoga practice. We decided to collaborate on an anthology of translations of classical yoga texts, Roots of Yoga, aimed at the general reader (forthcoming 2016, Penguin Classics). As a result of this collaboration I invited Singleton to join the HYP, in which he will

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focus on the development of the physical practices of yoga from its beginnings at the time of the Buddha up to the early modern period, the eve of yoga’s co-option by the international physical culture movement that gave rise to modern globalised yoga. My MA thesis was an ethnographic study of Indian asceticism, but my ethnographic work since then has been subordinate to my philological studies. In order to ensure that the project’s ethnographic research is methodologically rigorous I decided that it would be necessary to have a specialist ethnographer on the project team. Colleagues drew my attention to the work of Daniela Bevilacqua, whose doctoral thesis was a study of the Rāmānandī saṃpradāya, which is India's largest ascetic order and includes a small number of practitioners of yoga among its members. On account of her expertise on modern Indian asceticism, Bevilacqua is, to my knowledge, uniquely qualified for the role of the project’s postdoctoral ethnographer, and I invited her to join the team. During extended periods of fieldwork in India, she will gather information on the practice of haṭha yoga by traditional ascetics, including women. Furthermore, Dr Bevilacqua will record ascetics’ emic understandings of the theory of haṭha yoga, together with their methods of its practice, in order to verify whether these are shared by ascetics from different saṃpradāyas and to compare them with textual and scholarly understandings of haṭha yoga, and the techniques of its modern practitioners. The urgency of the project because of the danger posed to its textual and ethnographic sources is compounded by the rapid rise in popularity of modern globalised yoga and the proliferation in its methods. The HYP will not and cannot seek to identify an original or authentic yoga (yoga is multifarious and changes considerably even over the core period covered by the project) but by delineating physical yoga practice in India prior to the development of modern yoga it will at least allow yoga practitioners to know which of their practices are of premodern Indian origin and, for those who wish to do so, to chart a course for modern yoga that keeps it connected to its Indian roots. The primary output of the HYP will be four monographs. The first, mine, will analyse haṭha yoga and its practitioners in the period in which it was formalised, the 11th to 15th centuries CE. The second, by Birch, will document its subsequent proliferation and development, and identify what constituted yoga practice in India on the eve of colonialism. The third, by Singleton, will focus on haṭha yoga’s physical techniques in order to chart their history and identify continuities with and differences from the practices of modern globalised yoga. The fourth, by Bevilacqua, will describe Indian ascetics’ practice and perception of haṭha yoga by comparing those of past and present ascetics, and those of ascetics and lay practitioners. A secondary output will be critical editions and annotated translations of ten previously unpublished Sanskrit manuals of haṭha yoga: the six earliest texts on the subject together with four later texts that were key to its subsequent development. Further outputs will include peer-reviewed journal articles and volumes of the proceedings of two conferences to be held as part of the project. In addition it is expected that the project team will act as consultants and interviewees for a documentary film series on yoga.

The Texts I have identified the texts of the early corpus (Nos. 1-6) through finding passages borrowed from them in the c.1450 CE Haṭhapradīpikā.8 Birch has identified the four later works (Nos. 7-10) as key to understanding the subsequent development of haṭha yoga. Each of the texts that is to be edited in the HYP is a worthy object of study in its own right and is described in detail below. They include the earliest text to teach any of the practices of haṭha yoga (Amṛtasiddhi), the first text to teach a haṭha yoga called as such (Dattātreyayogaśāstra), the first text to teach physical practices for the raising of Kuṇḍalinī (Gorakṣaśataka), the first text to combine the practices of the tantric and ascetic yoga traditions (Vivekamārtaṇḍa), the first Nāth text to call its practices haṭha yoga (Yogabīja), the first text

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to attempt to combine haṭha and rāja yoga traditions (Yogatārāvalī) and the first text to describe individually each of the 84 āsanas (Yogacintāmaṇi). The most recent of the texts to be edited, the Kapālakuruṇṭakahaṭhābhyāsapaddhati, scans of the single known manuscript of which have recently been obtained by Birch, is of particular interest for scholars and practitioners of globalised modern yoga: various features of it (on which see below) suggest that it might be the lost “Yoga Kurunta” from which T.Krishnamacharya took much of his teaching.9 Krishnamacharya’s students include B.K.S.Iyengar, T.K.V.Deshikachar and Pattabhi Jois, the most influential teachers of modern yoga. It is hoped that through text-critical analysis in combination with Singleton’s work on Krishnamacharya the HYP team will be able to establish whether or not the Kapālakuruṇṭakahaṭhābhyāsapaddhati is indeed the same as the Yoga Kurunta. 1. Amṛtasiddhi. 284 verses, ten known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of nine. Editor: Mallinson. This is the first text to teach any of the practices that were later systematised as haṭha yoga, including mahāmudrā, mahābandha and mahāvedha. These techniques are used to control the breath and semen (bindu). The Amṛtasiddhi also introduced a scheme of four stages of yoga practice (ārambha, ghaṭa, paricaya and niṣpatti) which is found in many later texts. The text is Śaiva — Śiva is its principle deity — but a more detailed identification of its sectarian origins, which would be an important step in establishing the origins of haṭha yoga practice, is yet to be made and will, the project hopes, result from more detailed study of the text. The Amṛtasiddhi is also important for understanding the relationship between Śaiva yoga practice and tantric Buddhism. Despite the text’s clear Śaiva affiliation it was included in a cycle of texts that were given canonical status within Tibetan Buddhism by Bu ston Rin chen grub in 1322 CE. The Amṛtasiddhi’s oldest manuscript was copied in the early to mid-12th century and is much the oldest manuscript of any haṭha yoga text. The manuscript is also unique in that it is bilingual: the Sanskrit text is transliterated and translated into Tibetan. I have recently obtained scans of this manuscript, which is held in Beijing,10 and I have collated sections of it with a Devanāgarī manuscript of the Amṛtasiddhi held in the Man Singh Pustak Prakash, Jodhpur (which I have transcribed in full). Birch has also collated the readings of seven manuscripts for the first six of the text’s thirty-eight chapters, which we read with Professor Alexis Sanderson in Oxford in 2012. In addition to the manuscript witnesses there are several citations of the Amṛtasiddhi in later texts which will be collated for the edition. 2. Dattātreyayogaśāstra. 169 verses, seven known manuscripts, scans of all of which have been obtained by the team. Editor: Mallinson. This text was probably composed in the 13th century and is the first to teach a haṭha yoga named as such, the first to teach some of the central practices of haṭha yoga (specifically the khecarī and vajrolī mudrās) and the first to teach the subsequently widespread scheme of four yogas: mantra, laya, haṭha and rāja. The Dattātreyayogaśāstra was the catalyst for my identification the of non-Nāth ascetic tradition of haṭha yoga. Certain features of the text show that it was produced within a Vaiṣṇava ascetic milieu and its haṭha yoga is quite distinct from the yoga taught in contemporaneous Nāth texts (the Gorakṣaśataka and Vivekamārtaṇḍa) in that, like that of the Amṛtasiddhi, it does not use Kuṇdalinī and one of the key aims of its practices aim is the preservation of semen (bindu). I have collated all seven known manuscripts of the Dattātreyayogaśāstra and produced a working critical edition, which was read in Oxford in 2012 with Professor Alexis Sanderson, after which I produced a translation of the text.11 Citations of the text in some later works remain to be collated for the edition to be complete. 3. Gorakṣaśataka. 101 verses, four known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of one. Editor: Mallinson. This text, which is likely to have been composed in the 13th century, is the earliest (with the Vivekamārtaṇḍa, on which see below) text of haṭha yoga produced in the tradition of the tantric Nāth order, and the only text to teach a purely Nāth physical Kuṇḍalinī yoga uninfluenced by the bindu-oriented yoga of the Amṛtasiddhi and Dattātreyayogaśāstra. It is the first text to teach the śakticālanī mudrā, its teachings on which are found in many subsequent texts. However, in all but the Haṭharatnāvalī, they are in a corrupt form which renders the practice unintelligible.

9 Singleton (2010:184-186) discusses the Yoga Kurunta. 10 I thank Professors Leonard van der Kuijp and Kurtis Schaeffer for granting me permission to use the scans. Professor Schaeffer, a Tibetologist, has written an article on the text and this manuscript highlighting their importance both for understanding Sanskrit-Tibetan codicology and the development of Tibetan Buddhism (Schaeffer 2002). 11A preliminary translation of the Dattātreyayogaśāstra is available on my academia.edu page.

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I have transcribed and translated one manuscript of this text (Mallinson 2011a). I know of no citations of it in later compendia or commentaries; it seems that the text fell into obscurity once the Vivekamārtaṇḍa started to be known as the Gorakṣaśataka. 4. Vivekamārtaṇḍa. 173 verses, one known manuscript, of which the team has a scan. Editors: Mallinson and Birch. This text is also likely to date to the 13th century and is the first in the Nāth tradition to combine tantric Kuṇḍalinī techniques with the bindu-oriented practices taught in the Amṛtasiddhi and Dattātreyayogaśāstra, thus paving the way for classical haṭha yoga as taught in the 15th-century Haṭhapradīpikā and all subsequent works on the subject. I have transcribed the text as found in its one known manuscript, which was copied in 1477 CE, making it the oldest known Indian manuscript of a text on haṭha yoga. This manuscript will form the basis of the edition, to which alternative readings will be added from the text’s later expanded recension, which came to be known as the Gorakṣaśataka (perhaps out of confusion with No. 3 above), and which has been edited from just four of its hundred-plus manuscripts by Nowotny (1976). The HYP will collate the readings of Nowotny’s edition, citations of the text in pre-1700 compendia and commentaries (after 1700 the citations are all taken from the later recension) and any more pre-1700 manuscripts of the text that can be found. 5. Yogabīja. 190 verses, 20 known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of seven. Editors: Birch and Mallinson. This c. 14th-century text is the earliest work to combine tantric Kuṇḍalinī yoga with the techniques of the yoga of the Amṛtasiddhi and Dattātreyayogaśāstra and call the result haṭha. It is also the first haṭha yoga text to give a philosophical justification for the practice of yoga. Editions of the Yogabīja which appear to be diplomatic transcriptions of single manuscripts have been published by the Gorakhnāth Mandir in Gorakhpur and the Keśavānand Yoga Saṃsthān, and I have transcribed the readings of the former. These editions’ readings will be collated for the HYP critical edition together with those of the manuscripts we can obtain and the many citations of the text in later compendia and commentaries. 6. Amaraughaprabodha. 74 verses. Seven known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of one. Editor: Birch. This c.14th-century text, which is to some extent a compilation of verses from earlier works, teaches a haṭha yoga derivative of the techniques taught in the Amṛtasiddhi but puts it in a Nāth framework. I have transcribed a diplomatic transcription of a single manuscript of the Amaraughaprabodha published by Mallik (1954). 7. Yogatārāvalī. 29 verses. 24 known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of two. Editor: Birch. This c. 15th-century text is the first to combine haṭha and rāja yoga traditions. It is cited by T. Krishnamacharya, the most important guru of modern yoga, and is a key text for the hugely popular Aṣṭāṅga school of modern yoga established by Krishnamacharya’s student Pattabhi Jois. Aṣṭāṅga yoga classes usually begin with chanting of the Yogatārāvalī’s first verse. There have been several Indian editions of the Yogatārāvalī but none is philologically rigorous. Birch has located 24 manuscripts of the text whose readings he will collate together with those of the printed editions. 8. Yogacintāmaṇi.12 3423 verses plus prose auto-commentary, 24 known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of ten. Editors: Birch and Singleton. This voluminous 17th-century compendium consists mainly of quotations from approximately 90 works, among which are the Amṛtasiddhi, Dattātreyayogaśāstra and Yogabīja. The HYP will edit only its āsana section, which in different manuscripts varies in the number of āsanas described from 55 to 120. Some of the āsanas are found in earlier works, some are unique and some, significantly, are found only in a contemporaneous Persian work on yoga, the Baḥr al-Ḥayāt. Birch has transcribed the most extensive āsana description found so far in any of the manuscripts of the Yogacintāmaṇi (Scindia Oriental Institute, Ujjain, ms No. 3537). This will form the basis of the HYP edition. 9. Haṭhasaṃketacandrikā. Total length unknown; āsana section to be edited in the HYP c. 60 verses with prose commentary. Eight known manuscripts, of which the team has scans of three. Editors: Birch and

12 For more details on the Yogacintāmaṇi see Birch 2013:139-145. The Yogacintāmaṇi quotes the Yogabhāskara, a yoga text attributed to the famous seventeenth-century Advaitavedāntin philosopher Kavīndrācāryasarasvatī, who was an advisor to the fifth Mughal emperor, Shāh Jahān. This text is thought to be lost, but Birch has located a manuscript entitled Yogabhāskara in a recently published Indian library catalogue. If the quotations in the Yogacintāmaṇi confirm that this manuscript is Kavīndrācāryasarasvatī’s Yogabhāskara, it would be a significant discovery.

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Singleton. The HYP will edit only the extensive āsana section of this 18th-century work. Like the Yogacintāmaṇi, the Haṭhasaṃketacandrikā has parallels with the Persian Baḥr al-Ḥayāt. 10. Kapālakuruṇṭakahaṭhābhyāsapaddhati. Prose; 24 folios in a single manuscript, of which the team has a scan. Editors: Birch, Mallinson and Singleton. This text, as shown by its title, is attributed to one Kapālakuruṇṭaka. This attribution and its inclusion (as the longest chapter of the text) of descriptions of 110 āsanas which are identical to those taught in the Śrītattvanidhi, a text composed in Mysore in the mid-19th century and associated with the Mysore palace yoga tradition, suggest that the Kapālakuruṇṭakahaṭhābhyāsapaddhati may be the “Yoga Kurunta”, which was said to be the source of his yoga techniques by T. Krishnamacharya, the yoga teacher at the Mysore Palace in the first half of the twentieth century whose students have been the most influential teachers of globalised modern yoga. Ethnographic Case Studies I shall identify ascetic yoga practitioners to interview during the fieldwork program of the HYP by making inquiries at the Kumbh Mela festivals to be held in north India in 2016 and 2019. Below I shall give brief profiles of four ascetic yoga practitioners with whom I have already established close relationships and whom I expect to be among the project’s primary interviewees. Further details of the fieldwork programme can be found further on, in the methodology section. Bālyogī Rām Bālak Dās I first met Rām Bālak Dās at the 1992 Ujjain Kumbh Mela, where he initiated me into the Rāmānandī order and I have stayed in his camp at every Kumbh Mela held since then. Rām Bālak Dās, who is approximately 50 years of age, has small ashrams in Gujarat and Maharashtra but is mostly itinerant. He is renowned within his order for his mastery of a range of yoga practices which were taught to him by his guru when he was a boy (he became an ascetic at the age of ten). Among them is vajrolī mudrā, by means of which liquids may be drawn up the urethra and which is praised in haṭha yoga texts as the ultimate yoga practice for its ability to bring about either sexual continence or the absorption of the mixed products of sexual intercourse, depending upon the tradition in which it is taught. In all my years of fieldwork I have only ever met one other ascetic yogi who can perform vajrolī. Rām Bālak Dās has demonstrated its practice to me and taught me how to perform it myself. Rām Bālak Dās will, like all the project’s interviewees, be questioned about all aspects of the yoga tradition but special focus will be paid to vajrolī, which is key to understanding the history and purpose of haṭha yoga (Mallinson 2016). Jagannāth Dās Yogīrāj Jagannāth Dās is part of the same sublineage of the Rāmānandīs as Rām Bālak Dās. Approximately 35 years of age, he has an ashram on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, but spends most of his time travelling with a jamāt or troop of Rāmānandī ascetics, for which he is the pūjārī or priest. Unlike Rām Bālak Dās he combines his yoga practice, which includes the performance of āsanas and mudrās, with dhūni-tap, the ancient ascetic practice of spending several hours every day during the four months of the hot season meditating and practising yoga under the summer sun while surrounded by cow-dung fires. Interviews with Jagannāth Dās will inquire in particular about this combination of yoga and extreme ascetic practice. “Yogī Bābā” Anūp Nāth Anūp Nāth, who has been mentioned above, is a young (approximately 23 years old) Nāth ascetic who has a small kuṭīyā (hut) in the Himalayan pilgrimage centre of Manikaran but who is predominately itinerant. As noted above, he is a master of āsana practice, but his practice is innovative within the Nāth tradition and some of it derives from modern globalised yoga. Bālak Nāth Koṭhārī Bālak Nāth, who is approximately 30 years of age, is the Koṭhārī or storekeeper at the Nāth monastery at the temple of Jwalamukhi in Himachal Pradesh. He does not practise the physical techniques of yoga, but has

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been initiated into the ritual- and visualisation-based tantric practices which are the traditional preserve of his order and which are claimed in texts and by Nāth ascetics to bestow supernatural capabilities. He will be interviewed about this aspect of his religious practice in particular and asked how it relates to the physical practices of haṭha yoga. Impact The outputs of the project will be of interest to a general audience curious about the history of yoga and to yoga practitioners seeking to understand better the origins of their practice. They will also be beneficial to academic researchers in a variety of disciplines, not just philologists and ethnographers who study yoga. Scholars of Indian religion will understand better yoga’s development and place in Indian religious history, in particular its important contribution to the establishment of a pan-Indian Hinduism over the course of the last millennium. The different yogas taught in yoga texts are the products of different sects; by identifying them historians of India will get a better understanding of sect-formation in the medieval period, a process whose importance in India’s religious history is only now beginning to be appreciated. This will benefit art historians too — yoga-practising ascetics are the subject of a wide variety of paintings in the pre-modern period but their identification has hitherto been obscured by a lack of understanding of the sectarian milieu of which they were part. Ethnographers and historians of the ascetic orders which have members who practice yoga will gain a better understanding of their subjects. Philologists studying the use of texts within a scholarly tradition, together with manuscript practices and dissemination, will benefit from an understanding of how the texts of the haṭha corpus are interrelated and how they are borrowed from in other works. The project also provides philologists with an unusual opportunity to study the interaction of text and practice. Preliminary readings suggest that the texts were not just descriptive of yoga practice but used prescriptively too: corruptions in textual transmission have led to variations in practice (Mallinson 2011a). The creation of a searchable digital corpus will be of use not only to scholars of yoga but to Sanskritists in general and scholars of textual corpora. The place of the Amṛtasiddhi within the corpus will shed light on the development of Tibetan Buddhism and its relationship with non-Buddhist religion in India, and the parallels between some of the texts’ teachings on āsana with those found in Persian works will improve historians’ understanding of Hindu-Muslim interaction in precolonial India. Finally, scholars of the growing field of Modern Yoga will have a clearer understanding of the historical antecedents of their subject and a solid body of data from which to identify continuities and innovations, and to steer a course between the conflicting claims that yoga is a 5000-year-old religion or nothing but gymnastics. Section b. Methodology Program As soon as the project is given the go-ahead I shall invite leading scholars whose work is relevant to the HYP to join its advisory board. Invitees will include philologists (Professors Alexis Sanderson, Harunaga Isaacson, Dominic Goodall and Dominik Wujastyk) , historians (Dr Matthew Clark, Dr Elizabeth de Michelis), an ethnographer (Dr Véronique Bouillier) and an art historian (Dr Debra Diamond). The advisory board will meet once at the beginning of the project’s second year and once at the beginning of its final year. The project team have been invited by Gaj Singh, the erstwhile Maharaja of Jodhpur, to advise on the establishment of a yoga research institute at his Maharaja Man Singh Library at the Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, which houses the world’s largest collection of manuscripts on yoga. Once the HYP is given the go-ahead I shall recruit a local research assistant who would be the institute’s first full-time employee and whose duties for the HYP will include locating, obtaining copies of and transcribing manuscripts from libraries all over India. I shall also recruit a research assistant to be based at the École française d'Etrême Orient (EFEO) in Pondicherry whose duties will be similar to those of the Jodhpur-based research assistant but who will be cognisant of south Indian scripts in which Sanskrit may be written — a considerable number of manuscripts of haṭha yoga texts are written in such scripts, particularly Grantha.

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I shall arrange for the team members to be affiliated with a government-funded Indian research institute in order for them to be permitted to conduct fieldwork. This will be with either the Jodhpur institute should it have attained the necessary status or the EFEO. The work of editing the texts and collating manuscripts will start as soon as the project is officially underway. During the first year of the project, from October to March, Mallinson, Singleton and Birch will travel weekly to Oxford to read the Amṛtasiddhi with Dr Péter-Dániel Szántó of All Souls, University of Oxford. Dr Szántó will help with transcribing and translating the Tibetan registers of the Beijing manuscript and contextualising the text within the world of tantric Buddhism. During the first year we shall make institutional and practical preparations for fieldwork. We shall hold a series of team meetings to establish protocols for the conduct of collaborative work, lines of financial accountability, authorship and copyright of outputs, and the responsibilities of team members towards one another and the project. At the beginning of the second year of the project a workshop will be held at SOAS to which scholars working on texts related to haṭha yoga (particularly those on tantra and earlier forms of yoga) will be invited. The team members will lead sessions reading sections of the texts to be edited, while the invited guests will do the same for texts on which they are working.13 Birch will spend six months of the second year of the project in India, based in Jodhpur but travelling throughout the country to collect manuscript scans. Singleton will do the same in the project’s third year. Libraries holding manuscripts of texts to be edited in the project whose scans have not yet been acquired by the team include the following: Oriental Insitute, Baroda; Government Oriental Manuscripts Library, Madras; Adyar Library, Madras; Benares Hindu University; Jodhpur Oriental Research Institute; Palace Library, Trivandrum; Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune; Kurukshetra Vishvavidyalaya; Hemachandra Jain Mandir, Patan; Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjore; the Library of the Maharaja of Bikaner; Nagari Pracharini Sabha, Varanasi; National Archives, Kathmandu. Team members have successfully acquired scans of manuscripts from all of these libraries in the past, except for the Library of the Maharaja of Bikaner. In recent years scholars have been frustrated in their attempts to copy manuscripts in this library. Through a third party I have made preliminary contact with the library’s custodian and am hopeful that we will be given permission to copy manuscripts in the Bikaner collection. The critical editions and annotated translations of four of the texts (Nos. 1, 2, 6 and 9) will be completed by the end of the second year of the project, along with four articles which will constitute preliminary work on parts of the team members’ monographs: “Tantric Buddhism and early Haṭhayoga” (Mallinson), “The proliferation of āsana practice in early modern India” (birch), “Yoga and global physical culture” (Singleton) and “Yoga Pedagogy in Ascetic Traditions” (Bevilacqua). At the end of the third year editions of three further texts (Nos. 3, 4 and 10) will be completed, and Singleton and Birch will complete an article on “Āsana in the Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati and its implications for the history of yoga”. At the end of the fourth year editions of the three remaining texts (Nos. 5, 7 and 8) will be completed. The team members will submit their monographs for publication at the end of the project period. Other articles and book chapters to be published by the team during the project will include “Yoga and Sex” (Mallinson), “A History of the Man Singh Pustak Prakash's Collection of Yoga Manuscripts” (Singleton and Mahendra Singh Tanwar), “Yoga and Āyurveda” (Birch), “A History of Rājayoga” (Birch), “A History of Haṭhayoga” (Mallinson), “Haṭhayoga’s Tantric Idiom” (Mallinson), “More meanings of Haṭha” (Bevilacqua and Mallinson), “Yoga and Bhakti” (Bevilacqua), “Body Practice in Tantra” (Birch, Mallinson and Singleton), “Yogic Inversions” (Birch and Mallinson) and “Physical Culture in Precolonial India, and its Relationship to Yoga” (Singleton). In the first and fourth years of the project (April 2016 and February 2019), I and Dr Bevilacqua will spend a month at the Kumbh Mela festivals at Ujjain and Allahabad in northern India. These triennial festivals are the largest gatherings of India’s ascetics and thus provide the best opportunity for obtaining ethnographic data on traditional yoga practice. I and Dr Bevilacqua shall question informants from the various different yogi traditions in the light of the findings of the HYP. We shall remain in India for two months after each festival in order to have in-depth interviews with the most useful informants in more peaceful locations. 13 The workshop will follow the format of the recent workshop on early Śaiva manuscripts and inscriptions held in Paris, at which I was a guest speaker: http://www.efeo.fr/uploads/docs/PosterAtelierMars-2014.pdf.

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Two conferences, open to all and chaired by me, will be held at SOAS in the second and fourth years of the project. The first will be on Yogis, practitioners of yoga. Scholars in a wide variety of disciplines (ranging from ethnographers and art historians to experts in historical Sufi traditions) will be invited to speak at the conference. The team members will each give papers. In addition to facilitating the dissemination of the team’s preliminary findings, the conference will help contextualise the texts studied in the project. The second conference will be on Yoga. Scholars of the broader field of yoga studies will be invited (from those working on the origins of yoga practice at the time of the Buddha to specialists in modern globalised yoga). As in the first conference, the team members will each present papers in order to disseminate their findings, and the other scholars’ presentations will subsequently be drawn on to situate the project within the field of yoga studies as a whole. The papers given at both conferences will be revised for publication. Throughout its duration the project will be collaborative: we shall work closely together as a team, sharing research materials, maintaining regular communication, discussing themes to be shared by the project outputs, exchanging drafts of editions, translations, papers and book chapters, and holding regular informal meetings and workshops. Method Below I shall give details of the process of implementation of the project’s two main methods of acquiring and analysing data, namely text-critical study of Sanskrit texts on yoga and ethnography. The ten texts to be edited as part of the HYP will not be the only ones studied during the project. The introductions and notes to the editions, the monographs and the peer-reviewed articles will all draw on any known relevant texts, either published editions or manuscript copies already obtained. In addition, when collecting scans of manuscripts of the texts to be edited in the project, the team will identify in the catalogues of each library visited any other manuscripts which may be of interest and have them scanned too so that they may be consulted and drawn on if relevant. In addition to Sanskrit texts and ethnography, the researchers will draw on further sources in order to contextualise the project’s findings. These will include: inscriptions which mention the divine and human teachers of the texts of the corpus; foreign travellers’ historical reports of yogis; representations of yogis in temple statuary; Mughal, south Indian and colonial-era paintings depicting yogis; medieval texts on haṭha yoga in languages other than Sanskrit, including Tamil, Marathi, Braj Bhasha and Persian; and ethnographic studies of modern transnational yoga. Philological method Ten is a large number of texts to edit but they (or the passages from them which will be edited) are all relatively short (ranging from 29 to 284 verses) and scans of many of their manuscripts have already been obtained by the team. Working editions of some of the texts have been established and at least one manuscript of every text has been transcribed. Thus, even in the very unlikely event of scans of no further manuscripts of a text being obtained, it will be possible to establish an edition of it. Editing the texts will follow the same procedure as carried out by Birch and myself when we edited texts for our doctoral theses, and which I have used for subsequent texts or passages of texts. A detailed description of the procedure can be found in the technical appendix submitted with this application, which I shall summarise here. We shall make sample collations of passages from a text to be edited in order to establish, if possible, a stemma of the manuscript witnesses, from which we can evaluate the readings to be adopted in the textus criticus. Once this has been done and the editing process is under way we shall input the text and variants in XML. As soon as the team members have a working edition of a text they will start on its translation and the notes to the translation. The team will hold regular meetings to read through the working editions. When members are away from SOAS, these will be carried out via Skype. The finalised XML editions will be deposited at SARIT (“Search and Retrieval of Indic Texts” — http://sarit.indology.info). They will also be converted from XML to HTML and published as a project-

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specific website hosted by SOAS Research Online in a new format developed by Andrew Ollett and others, which presents editions and their translations side-by-side, and makes viewing variant readings as simple as hovering the mouse over the lemma word.14 It is my hope that by using and promoting this groundbreaking method of displaying textual variants the HYP will encourage scholars previously intimidated by dense critical apparatuses to engage with text-critical scholarship, which I am convinced is essential for a correct understanding of not just Indian religious history but any historical subject studied through written sources. The same XML sources will be converted to LaTeX in order to typeset them for publication as books. These books, together with the project’s monographs and conference proceedings, will be published in a dedicated SOAS Yoga Library series, which it is hoped will continue long after the end of the project. Ethnographic method Dr Bevilacqua will engage in six months of fieldwork each year of the project, as a result of which the HYP will provide the first ethnography of yoga practice among traditional Indian ascetics, who have always been its practitioners par excellence. This will be directed ethnography, aimed primarily at understanding ascetic practice of yoga, but also at understanding the development of the sects whose members practise yoga. It will not be an ethnography of Indian asceticism in general nor of a specific sect or sublineage (excellent ethnographies of these kinds have already been done by Burghart (e.g. 1980), van der Veer (1989), Gross (1992), Hausner (2007) and Bouillier (2008)). Furthermore, I and Dr Bevilacqua will go to the Kumbh Mela festivals to be held at Ujjain and Allahabad in April 2016 and February 2019 respectively. We shall stay in the camp of the sub-lineage with which I am affiliated, which includes at least four practitioners of haṭha yoga (two of whom have been described in the case studies above). Through casual conversations we shall seek to identify further yoga practitioners to interview formally, both within our camp and in the camps of other ascetic orders including the Nāths, the Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs and the Udāsīs. I have acquaintances in all these orders who I expect will be happy to help us in our search. We shall try to interview the yoga practitioners that we identify while at the festival, but this may not be possible, in which case we shall arrange to meet informants afterwards (this is much easier than it used to be — many ascetics and/or their disciples now carry mobile telephones). It is also likely that we shall learn of yogis who are not at the festival but whom our informants there tell us will be suitable interviewees. Likely locations for the interviews to be conducted after the festivals include the higher reaches of Garhwal Himalaya and Himachal Pradesh, which are frequented by ascetics and yogis in the hot season that follows the Ujjain festival. After the Allahabad Kumbh Mela, likely venues for further fieldwork include Chitrakut and Varanasi, where ascetics of, respectively, the Rāmānandī and Daśanāmī traditions often repair to relax after the rigours of the festival. The formal interviews will be recorded and, if we think it suitable in instances when informants demonstrate yogic techniques, filmed. (As with all our data collection from informants, sound recording and filming will only be carried out with the informants’ written or filmed consent as outlined in the Ethical Issues Annex submitted together with this proposal.) Prior to embarking on our fieldwork trips we shall draw up a list of questions to put to our informants. Key questions will include the following: - What yoga practices do they do? - How are they done? - Why do they do them? - How did they learn them? - To whom do/will they teach them? - Do textual sources inform their yoga practice and teaching? - Can laypeople practise yoga? 14 See Ollett’s sample file at http://www.columbia.edu/~aso2101/lilavati/lilavati_sample-dn.html.

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- If so, do they teach yoga to their lay followers? If any informants answer yes to the last question, we shall attempt to interview their lay followers. Many of the texts to be edited as part of the HYP teach that laypeople may learn its techniques. Indeed, this is likely to be part of the reason that the texts were composed and we hope that ethnography may shed light on how this might have happened. And we will be open to the possibility of identifying and interviewing members of lay lineages of traditional yoga practitioners, although a thorough search for, and ethnography of, such lineages would require a separate project, in particular because they are likely to have been strongly influenced by modern yoga practice. In our ethnographic analysis, we shall be wary of reading too much of the past from the present. My previous studies have in particular shown me how sectarian developments have resulted in changes in the doctrinal frame of yoga practice. My understanding of the historical development of the yogi sects allows me to identify instances of this and discard them when drawing on ethnographic observation to understand the past, and I shall guide Dr Bevilacqua through these potential pitfalls. All the data acquired during our ethnographic fieldwork will be accompanied by a detailed description of the process and context of its acquisition in order to facilitate its subsequent analysis. Monographs In conclusion I shall give a brief summary of the content and structure of the three monographs that will be produced as the HYP’s most significant outputs. 1. Mallinson. Working title: Yoga and Yogis: the Texts, Techniques and Practitioners of Early Haṭhayoga. Two parts: (1) Yoga and (2) Yogis. The first part will identify and summarise the texts of the early corpus, analyse the various methods of yoga taught in them and seek to identify their antecedents. In particular it will show how the classical haṭha yoga formulated in the Haṭhapradīpikā is a combination of two separate traditions of practice. The second part will identify the practitioners of haṭha yoga during its formative period and show how they are divided into two groups corresponding to the two types of practice. Delineating the development of the two traditions will require analysis of both their antecedents and those who succeeded them.15 2. Birch. Working title: Yoga on the Eve of Colonialism: the Historical Foundations of Modern Indian Yoga. This monograph will ask how medieval haṭha yoga was transformed into modern Indian yoga. The first of its two parts will be philological, drawing on Sanskrit texts to document the transformation of haṭha yoga from an ascetic practice into a yoga more palatable to orthodox Hindus. The second part wil present new evidence for the influence of this late medieval Brahminical yoga on the founders of modern yoga by extending Professor Christopher Minkowski’s survey (2012) of Advaitavedāntin authors and works from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries, as well as Christian Bouy’s work (1994) on the eighteenth-century Advaitavedāntin authors who took an interest in earlier yoga traditions. 3. Singleton. Working title: A History of the Physical and Postural Practices of Indian Yoga, from Antiquity to the pre-Colonial Period. This monograph builds on Singleton’s prior work on the history of transnational postural yoga practice in the modern age. It will focus on the development of the physical practices of yoga from its beginnings at the time of the Buddha up to the early modern period, the eve of yoga’s co-option by the international physical culture movement that gave rise to modern globalised yoga. Drawing on Sanskrit and vernacular textual sources, as well as travellers’ accounts and artistic representations of practising yogis, the book will enhance our understanding of physical yoga’s development, and amplify the pre-modern contexts that influenced modern, posture-based systems. In addition to yoga traditions sensu stricto, the study will consider physical practices from allied traditions like wrestling, dance and martial arts which may have subsequently been incorporated into yoga.

15 The investigation of the antecedents of haṭha yoga’s practices and practitioners will in part complement the Beyond Boundaries project hosted by the British Museum and funded by an ERC Synergy Grant.

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4. Bevilacqua. Working title: Let the Sādhus Talk: Past and Present Emic Understandings of Yoga and Yogis. This monograph will be composed of two parts, the first historiographic, the second ethnographic. The first part will describe the social background of premodern practitioners of yoga. It will draw on textual descriptions of yoga practitioners by ascetics and ācāryas and attempt both to verify whether these descriptions changed along with social and political conditions, and to understand how these changes affected the number and typologies of haṭha yoga practitioners. The second part will describe traditional ascetic practitioners of haṭha yoga today and their emic understandings of its practice and purpose. In so doing, the study will provide a comparison of past and present haṭha yoga practitioners, as well as a confrontation of the emic ascetic perspective of haṭha yoga with that of scholars and modern lay practitioners.

References Birch, Jason. 2013. The Amanaska. King of All Yogas. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation with a Monographic Introduction. Thesis submitted for degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Oxford. Bouillier, Véronique. 2008. Itinérance et vie monastique. Les ascètes Nāth Yogīs en Inde contemporaine. Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme. Bouy, Christian. 1994. Les Nātha-Yogin et les Upaniṣads. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard. Burghart, Richard. 1980. “Secret Vocabularies of the ‘Great Renouncers’ of the Ramanandi Sect,” pp. 17-30 in Early Hindu Devotional Literature in Current Research, ed. W.M. Callewaert (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 8). Leuven: Departement Orientalistiek Katholieke Universiteit. Clark, Matthew. 2006. The Daśanāmī-Saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages into an Order. Leiden: Brill. Eliade, Mircea. 1973 [1954]. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gharote, M.L. and Bedekar, V.A. 2005. Descriptive Catalogue of Yoga Manuscripts (Updated). Lonavla: Kaivalyadhama S.M.Y.M. Samiti. Gross, Robert Lewis. 1992. The Sadhus of India: A Study of Hindu Asceticism. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Hausner, Sondra. 2007. Wandering with Sadhus: Ascetics in the Hindu Himalayas. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Kiss, Csaba. 2009. Matsyendranātha’s Compendium (Matsyendrasaṃhitā). A critical edition and annotated translation of Matsyendrasaṃhitā 1-13 and 55 with analysis. Unpublished DPhil. thesis submitted to the University of Oxford. Mallik, Kalyani. 1954. The Siddha Siddhānta Paddhati and Other Works of Nath Yogis. Poona: Poona Oriental Book House. Mallinson, James. 2007. The Khecarīvidyā of Ādinātha: a Critical Edition and Annotated Translation. London: Routledge Curzon. -----------. 2011a. “The Original Gorakṣaśataka,” pp. 257–272 in Yoga in Practice, ed. D.G.White. Princeton: Princeton University Press. -----------. 2011b. “The Nāth Saṃpradāya”, pp. 407-428 in the Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 3. Leiden: Brill. -----------. 2014. “Haṭhayoga’s Philosophy: A Fortuitous Union of Non-Dualities,” pp. 225-247 in the Journal of Indian Philosophy volume 42, issue 1. -----------. 2015. “Śāktism and Haṭhayoga,” pp. 109-140 in Goddess Traditions in Tantric Hinduism, ed. Bjarne Wernicke Olesen. London: Routledge. -----------. Forthcoming (2016). “Yoga and Sex: What is the Purpose of Vajrolīmudrā?” in Yoga in Transformation, ed. Philipp Maas. Vienna: V&R unipress. Minkowski, Christopher. 2012, “Advaita Vedānta in Early Modern History,” in Religious Cultures in Early Modern India: New Perspectives, ed. Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook. London: Routledge Nowotny, Fausta. 1976. Gorakṣaśataka (ed.). Köln: Dokumente der Geistesgeschichte. Pinch, William R. 2006. Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sastri, V. V. Ramana. 1956. “The Doctrinal Culture and Tradition of the Siddhas,” pp. 300-308 in Haridas Bhattacharyya (ed.). The Cultural Heritage of India. Vol. 4: The Religions. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.

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Schaeffer, Kurtis. 2002. “The Attainment of Immortality: from Nāthas in India to Buddhists in Tibet,” pp. 515-533 in the Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol. 30 No. 6. Singh, Pancham. 1914. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika. Allahabad: Panini Office. Singleton, Mark. 2010. Yoga Body. New York: Oxford University Press. van der Veer, Peter. 1989. Gods on Earth. The Management of Religious Experience and Identity in a North Indian Pilgrimage Centre. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Vasu, S.C. 1914. The Siva Samhita. Allahabad: Panini Office. -----------. 1895. The Gheranda Samhita, a Treatise on Hatha Yoga. Bombay: Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund. White, David Gordon. 1996. The Alchemical Body. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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