Human Security as a new paradigm

HUMAN SECURITY AS A NEW PARADIGM IN INTERNATIONAL SECURITY: A CASE OF KENYA
Peter K. Waweru (Kenya Forest Service)

Introduction:
Security according to Schafer is a controversial concept which lacks common
consensus with many presenting it as absence of threat to respected values,
notably threats that endanger the survival of certain referent objects.[1]
Security as understood in the discipline of International relations implies
national security or the protection of the state from threats and risks
that are external. Security can then be seen as the pursuit and the ability
of states to maintain freedoms as well as independent identity and
integrity against hostility.[2] Traditionally security had focused on
military activities, and in dealing with armed groups. Increasingly focus
is now being directed to other players within the security system as well
as the softer side of security including how institutions are governed,
resources access, human wellbeing, poverty, and environmental risk.[3]

Human Security as a New Concept:
The concept of human security is relatively new and an emerging paradigm
for understanding vulnerabilities facing humankind whose proponents
challenge the conventional or Realist's idea of national security by
positing that the appropriate referent for security should be the
individual rather than the state. The United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) first brought global attention to this concept in its 1994 Human
Development Report (HDR). This report made a highlight of two major
components of human security; that is freedom from fear and freedom from
want.[4] Two ideas lie at the centre of human security; the protection of
individuals and communities is a key concern for national as well as
international security and secondly security conditions for human
development should not be tied to conventional matters of defence of the
nation but must also include all matters that are political, economic and
social allowing for a life free from threat and fear.[5]
Human security focuses the concept of security on human survival, wellbeing
and freedom being conceptualized as the objective of the ultimate ends of
all security concerns. Other forms of security, such as military security,
are not ultimate goals but are merely means for achieving the ultimate
objectives of human security.[6] In its broadest sense it encompasses human
rights, good governance, access to education and health care ensuring that
each individual has opportunities and choices to fulfill his or her
potential.[7] The Commission for Human Security (CHS), in its final report
Human Security Now, defines human security as;
"to protect the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance
human freedoms and human fulfillment. It means protecting fundamental
freedoms. It means protecting people from critical (severe) and
pervasive (widespread) threats and situations. It means using
processes that build on people's strengths and aspirations. It means
creating political, social, environmental, economic, military and
cultural systems that together give people the building blocks of
survival, livelihood and dignity".[8]
The CHS posits that the need for a new security paradigm is related with
two sets of positions; that is, human security is required as a response to
the complexity and the interrelatedness of both old and emerging security
threats. These threats range from chronic and persistent poverty to ethnic
conflict, human trafficking, disease outbreaks, international terrorism,
climate change, as well as economic and financial meltdowns. They tend to
assume transnational dimensions and go beyond conventional ideas of
security that focuses on external military threats alone.[9]

Key Elements of Human Security:
Four key elements constitute human security. First is the requirement that
all citizens live in a peaceful and secure environment. This implies the
ability of states and citizens to prevent and resolve conflicts through
peaceful and nonviolent means. Secondly people should be able to enjoy
without discrimination all rights and obligations that may be political,
social, economic and cultural that go with belonging to a State. The third
element entails social inclusion or having equal access for the individuals
and communities to the political, social and economic agenda and policy
making processes. Lastly the provision of rule of law and the independence
of the justice system is important. Each individual in a society should
have access to the same rights and obligations and be subjected to similar
set of rules.[10] As stated by Sadako Ogata, threats to human security are
varied with a wide array of factors contributing to making people feel
insecure from many threats such as poverty, hunger, disease and violence,
transnational threats such as terrorism, piracy, drugs and human
trafficking and climate change.[11]

Threats associated with Human Security:
Consensus seems to be lacking on specifically which threats should be taken
as human security issues. Those in support of the narrow definition of
human security favour for that focusing on violence related threats to
individuals and communities. Supporters of the broad definition as
highlighted in the 1994 HDR argue that hunger, disease, pollution, threat
to human dignity in addition to violence should also be considered as human
security issues.[12] The HDR lists seven key dimensions of human security.
These are economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and
political. According to UNDP human security therefore becomes all-
embracing and is useful in addressing various issues such as attaining
prosperity and an economically just society that ensures equity in the
distribution of national wealth, ascertaining food security, universal
access to basic education, social security, and essential health care for
all; guaranteeing environmental and political security, as well pursuing
partnerships for societal posterity.[13]
Human security is underpinned on root causes of insecurities and favours
people-centered solutions which are locally driven, comprehensive and
enduring. It therefore involves a wider array of actors as earlier
suggested such as local communities, international organizations, civil
society as well as the State itself. Human security according United
Nations Trust Fund for Human Security is however not intended to take the
place of state security. Instead, their relationship is complementary with
both mutually reinforcing and dependent on each other.[14]
Human Insecurity: The Kenyan Context
Kenya as a country has experienced noted deterioration in human security
over the past few years, including increasing petty criminal activity, the
advent of ethnic intolerance, environmental related insecurities and
emergence of terrorism and other transnational and transactional crimes.
Individual or community physical security or freedom from violence has
particularly witnessed notable decay since the 1990s in three ways. First,
petty and to some extent violent crime has increased dramatically,
especially in low income and less affluent urban areas. Second, most parts
of Northern Kenya and in the coastal areas have witnessed an escalation of
armed violence and threats of terrorism. Thirdly, ethnic clashes and other
forms of election related violence have resulted in deaths, destruction of
property and displacement of people since 1991. Rampant cattle rustling in
Northern Kenya has been also worrying. Overall the ever increasing threat
of terror attacks and emergence of criminal gangs remains a major concern
for both the government and the populace.
The environment has continued deteriorating through massive deforestation,
pollution and overall land degradation which has had adverse effects on
land productivity. Adverse effects of climate change have also not spared
Kenya. Other forms of human insecurity facing Kenyans include chronic food
shortages due to drought, poor post harvest management, problems of
diseases and poor access to medical services, prevalence of poverty among
the population; poor provision of social amenities such as water, energy
and housing. The high influx of refugees from across Kenya's borders is
also a main source of human insecurity arising from resource based
conflicts, increased criminal activities and environmental degradation.
Overall the harsh economic conditions have exposed many Kenyans to
compounded forms of human insecurity.
According to UNDP human insecurity in Kenya may be viewed from the
following broad perspectives:[15]
Economic insecurity experienced at the individual level through
unemployment and hence the high poverty incidence. At the state level, this
insecurity is experienced through economic crimes and also corruption which
has become prominent and entrenched in Kenya.
Deficits in provision of social services including: Education: Kenya has
implemented a policy of universal free primary education however deficits
remain arising from insufficient budgets for the sector and curricular that
is not tailored to the modern needs of industry. Education at university
level has been expanded but with huge constraints on budgets adversely
affecting policy related research.
Healthcare: Due to constraints in budgetary provisions, medical services
have deteriorated through decline in access, quality, inadequate supply of
drugs and pharmaceuticals, as well as threats such as HIV/AIDS and
recurrence of diseases such as tuberculosis.
Social welfare: Budgetary constraints have put a big strain on the social
welfare system and services including the provision of sufficient social
safety nets for the increasingly vulnerable members of society such as the
elderly orphaned and disabled.
Political freedoms: Political space may have widened however there still
remain problems in finding balances within the realm of democratic
pluralism, power sharing, and guaranteeing rights and freedoms for the
population and the media.
Changing social structures: The impacts are reflected on gender, youths and
decay of social norms such drug and substance abuse.
Gender: in many sectors women are often denied rights and access to assets
and property despite their crucial role in family livelihoods.
Youth: Lack of opportunities for business and employment leading to loss
of hope among the youth. This has often led to increased crime and drug and
substance abuse in the society. Recently radicalization and extreme
violence exhibited by various radical youth groups has become a major
concern due to disillusionment.
Crime: Rising crime in Kenya is manifested through lack of observance of
law, domestic violence, proliferation of criminal gangs, robbery,
hijackings, trafficking of drug substances and people, increased
transactional crimes such in small arms and light weapons, to some extent
money laundering and fraud; cattle rustling, as well as prevalence in
poaching of wildlife.
Terrorism and extreme violence: These two coupled with radicalization have
recently become a major challenge that has instilled a lot of fear to both
citizens and foreigners. The net effect of this is disruption in peoples'
lives.
Environmental mismanagement: There has over the years been noted
deterioration of the environment through wanton deforestation of water
catchments, pollution of water sources and land degradation and the
attendant climatic change. This has made the country become insecure in
food, water and energy.
Conclusion:
The concept of Human Security is a paradigm shift from mainstream national
security as a major discourse in international security. For security to
be meaningful all aspects of human wellbeing require being addressed. These
may be physical security, as well as social. In Kenya human insecurity has
often been exhibited as open conflict with attendant direct cost
implications, such as killings, physical harm; destruction of property and
human displacements. The indirect costs of human insecurity include long-
term political, economic, environmental and social costs affecting both
individuals and communities. Increasing human insecurities result to direct
tangible losses, such as deteriorating livelihoods and prevalence of
poverty. As a result there occurs exclusion from available opportunities,
discrimination and isolation, lack of access to sources of incomes,
political empowerment, property and social services. Degraded environments
and food insecurity become manifested. Good governance within the political
and economic realms is likely to provide solutions to the myriad human
security problems facing many Kenyans.









References
Book Sources
Chen, L. "Human Security: Concepts and Approaches", Common Security in Asia
New, Concepts of Human Security, Tatsuro Matsumae and Lincoln C. Chen, eds,
Tokyo Tokai University Press, 1995
Kiamba, A. "The Role of the Military in the Security Architecture of the
Horn of Africa" in Human Security- Setting the agenda for the Horn of
Africa, Mwagiru, M. ed, Africa Peace Forum, 2008



Journal Sources
Schafer, P. J. "Human and Water Security in Israel and Jordan", Springer
Briefs in Environment, Security, Development and Peace, 2013



Internet sources
Hussein, et al "Security and Human Security: an overview of Concepts and
Initiatives what implications for West Africa?" Sahel and West Africa Club,
2004 http://.oecd.org/swac/publications/38826090.pdf.

Kofi, A. "Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the
Organization". General Assembly Official Records Fifty-fifth session
Supplement No.1 (A/55/1). New York: United Nations, 2000

http://un.org/documents/sg/report00/a551e.pdf.




Ogata, S. "Human Security: a Refugee Perspective", United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees, at the Ministerial Meeting on Human Security
Issues of the "Lysoen Process" Group of Governments. Bergen, 1999.
http://www.unhcr.ch/refworld/unhcr/hcspeech/990519.htm.


Ogata, S. "Inclusion or Exclusion: Social Development Challenges For Asia
and Europe", United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Asian
Development Bank Seminar, 1998.http://
unhcr.ch/refworld/unhcr/hcspeech/27ap1998.htm.

United Nations Development Programme "Human Security and Human Development:
A deliberate Choice" Kenya National Human Development Report 2006.
http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Kenya/kenya_2006_en.pdf.

United Nations Development Programme "Human Development Report", New York
Oxford University Press, 1994.
http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/255/hdr_1994_en_complete_nos
tats.pdf.

United Nations Fund for Human Security "Human Security in Theory and
Practice: Application of the Human Security Concept and the United Nations
Trust Fund for Human Security" undated. http://
tr.undp.org/content/dam/turkey/docs/news-from-new-horizons/issue-41/UNDP-
TRSHandbook-2009.pdf.


-----------------------
[1] Schafer, P.J. "Human and Water Security in Israel and Jordan",
(Springer Briefs in Environment, Security, Development and Peace, 2013).
pp.5-18
[2] Kiamba, A. "The Role of the Military in the Security Architecture of
the Horn of Africa" (in Human Security- Setting the agenda for the Horn of
Africa, Mwagiru, M. ed, Africa Peace Forum, 2008). p.63
[3] Hussein, et al. "Security and Human Security: an overview of Concepts
and Initiatives what implications for West Africa?" (Sahel and West Africa
Club, 2004) p.8
http:// oecd.org/swac/publications/38826090.pdf (accessed September,
21/2015)

[4] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). "Human Development Report"
(New York, Oxford University Press, 1994).
http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/255/hdr_1994_en_complete_nos
tats.pdf. (accessed September, 22/2015)
[5] Ibid
[6] Chen, L. "Human Security: Concepts and Approaches." (Common Security
in Asia New, Concepts of Human Security, Tatsuro, Matsumae and Lincoln, C.
Chen, eds. Tokyo Tokai University Press, 1995). p.139
[7] Kofi, A. "Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the
Organization", (General Assembly Official Records Fifty-fifth session
Supplement No.1 (A/55/1). New York: United Nations, 2000). p.4
http:// un.org/documents/sg/report00/a551e.pdf. (accessed September,
22/2015)
[8] United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security. "Human Security in
Theory and Practice: Application of the Human Security Concept and the
United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security"
http://tr.undp.org/content/dam/turkey/docs/news-from-new-horizons/issue-
41/UNDP-TR-HSHandbook_2009.pdf. (accessed September, 23/2015)
[9] Ibid


[10] Ogata, S. "Inclusion or Exclusion: Social Development Challenges for
Asia and Europe."
(United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Asian Development Bank
Seminar, 1998).
http:// unhcr.ch/refworld/unhcr/hcspeech/27ap1998.htm.(accessed September,
22/2015)
[11] Ogata, S. "Human Security: a Refugee Perspective", (United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees, at the Ministerial Meeting on Human
Security Issues of the "Lysoen Process" Group of Governments, Bergen,
1999). http:// unhcr.ch/refworld/unhcr/hcspeech/990519.htm. (accessed
September, 23/2015)
[12] UNDP, Op.cit
[13] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)."Human Security and Human
Development: A deliberate Choice" (Kenya National Human Development Report,
2006).
http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Kenya/kenya_2006_en.pdf (accessed
September, 22/2014)

[14] United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security, Op. cit

[15] United Nations Development Programme "Human Security and Human
Development: A Deliberate Choice" (Kenya National Human Development Report,
2006).
http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Kenya/kenya_2006 en.pdf (accessed
on September, 30/2015)