Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief Dr. Chenlin Hu, the Ohio State University, United States Dr. Zhao Chen, Clemson University, United States Associate Editors Dr. Sahar Bahmani, University of Wisconsin at Parkside, United States Dr Hui Guo, University of Georgia, United States Editor Richard Williams, Macrothink Institute, United States Editorial Board Dr. Abhishek Cukkemane
Dr. Richard R. E. Uwiera Un
Dr. Adepu Kiran Kumar
Dr. Sahar Bahmani
Dr. Aftab Alam
Dr. Sait Engindeniz
Dr. Ariel Soto Caro
Dr. Zakaria Fouad Abdallah
Dr. Chenlin Hu
Dr. Zhao Chen
Dr. Ernest Baafi
Dr. ZOI PARISSI
Dr. Ewa Moliszewska
Dr. Zoubida Boumahdi
Dr. Gabriel Bonetto Bampi
Dr.Idress Hamad Attitalla
Dr. Gajanan T Behere
Dr.Martin Ernesto Quadro Argentina
Dr. Gerardo Ojeda
Eliana Mariela Werbin
Dr. Gulzar Ahmad Nayik
Mr Ashit Kumar Paul
Dr. Hui Guo
Mr. Syed Rizwan Abbas
Dr. Idin ZIBAEE
Prof. Jeong Hwan Lee
Dr. Luisa Pozzo
Prof. Carlos Alberto Zúniga González
Dr. Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi Dr. Moses Iwatasia Olotu Dr. Muhammed Yuceer Dr. PRAMOD KUMAR MISHRA Dr. Rasha Mousa Assiut University Egypt Dr. Reham Ibrahim Abo-Shnaf
Journal of Agricultural Studies ISSN 2166-0379 2016, Vol. 4, No. 3
Contents Agroforestry Natural and Benefits Stimuli for Improvement of Kerinci Community at Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP)
1-12
Mustofa Marli Batubara, Asvic Helida Farmers’ Perceptions on Climate Variability and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Cinzana, Mali 13-36 Touré Halimatou, Zampaligre Nouhoun, Traoré Kalifa, Kyei-Baffour Nicholas Artificial Inoculation of AM Fungi Improves Nutrient Uptake Efficiency in Salt Stressed Pea (Pissum Sativum L) Plants
37-46
Eriola Meça, Glenda Sallaku, Astrit Balliu Comparative Efficacy of Insecticidal Plants on the Management of Groundnut Bruchid (Caryedon Serratus)
47-57
Simon Idoko Okweche, Sylvia Bassey Umoetok, Ukatu Patrick Odey Evaluation of Different Measures of Milk Yield Persistency in Iranian Holstein Dairy Cows 58-73 Mahdi Elahi Torshizi, Mojtaba Hosseinpour Mashhadi Direct Effect of cashew Nut Scarification Associated with Powdery Mildew in the Processing Industry
74-92
Americo Uaciquete, Jacinto Raul Nicurrupo Determinants of Competitiveness of the Swaziland Sugar Industry Knowledge Ndlangamandla, Douglas Kibirige, Jeremiah I. Rugambisa
93-107
Effects of Irrigation Methods and Water Regimes on Occurrences of Cucumo- And Poty- Viruses in Watermelon 108-120 Kehinde Titilope Kareem, Adebayo Olubukola Oke, Kayode Stephen Are, Oluwafolake Adenike Akinbode, Ayodele Olumide Adelana Influence of Seed Hardening Techniques on Vigor, Growth and Yield of Wheat under Drought Conditions
121-131
Amir Zaman Khan Reviewer Acknowledgements Richard Williams
132
Journal of Agricultural Studies ISSN 2166-0379 2016, Vol. 4, No. 3
Agroforestry Natural and Benefits Stimuli for Improvement of Kerinci Community at Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP) Mustofa Marli Batubara (Corresponding author) Faculty of Agriculture Science, University of Muhammadiyah Palembang Jl. Jend. A. Yani 13 Ulu Palembang, Indonesia Tel: 62-711-513022 E-mail:
[email protected] Asvic Helida Faculty of Agriculture Science, University of Muhammadiyah Palembang Jl. Jend. A. Yani 13 Ulu Palembang, Indonesia Tel: 62-711-513022
Received: April 18, 2015
Accepted: May 1, 2015
Published: May 23, 2016
doi:10.5296/jas.v4i3. 9317
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jas.v4i3.9317
Abstract Stimulus is a stimulation that causes reaction or response. Stimuli are factors that affect someone or something to be have. The concept of tri-stimulus amar states that the tri stimulus amar conservation is important in conservation action and consists of natural stimulus, benefit, and religious (willingness).This study aimed to determine whether the species composition of Kerinci communities agroforestry plants in hilly land was a natural stimuli, and to determine whether the income level of the farming community from agroforestry activities was already a benefit to the community. The research was conducted using participatory observation method. The data were analyzed descriptively by making tabulation matrix then rated quantitatively to determine the Cultural Significance Index (CSI) and Index of Importance Value (IIV). Furthermore, natural and benefit stimuli of agroforestry activities for the Kerinci community were described. The results showed there were 27 agroforestry plants with Pelak system and cinnamon plant (Cinnamomun burmannii) which belonged to the Lauraceous family was a plant with the highest ICS (67) and IIV (43). These results indicated that cinnamon plant played an important role in the Kerinci community culture and ecosystems because it was quite abundant in nature. The farmers knew cinnamon bio ecology which means that the natural stimuli of cinnamon were the basis in the selection 1
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of the plant. While products from agroforestry crops could improve the welfare of farmers thus became the benefit stimuli for the community in conducting Pelak agroforestry farming systems. Natural and benefit stimuli were the factors that caused the farmers to conduct agroforestry activities with cinnamon as the dominant plant species. Keywords: Natural stimuli, benefit stimuli, agroforestry, Cultural Significance Index (CSI), Index of Importance Value (IIV) 1. Introduction Maintaining the forest in the form of protected areas such as national parks, nature reserves, and recreation parks is one of the solutions to preserve tropical forest areas rich in biodiversity. As for the people living around and even within the conservation area, the forest is a source of livelihood and parts of the rural region, which boundary is marked traditionally and controlled by the village community ownership, and land-use system outlined by customary law. Stipulation of forest as conservation area restricts public access to utilize the forest products. Forests can no longer be utilized by the community, thus causing a conflict. Various studies showed that the interaction between people and their environment had been interwoven (Michon et al. 2000, Hariyadi 2008, Anderson 2009; Purwanto 2011). One of such local people was Kerinci community which inhabited the valley of Kerinci. Aumeeruddy (1994) stated that the Kerinci community had long interacted with their environment shown by their farming system called Pelak. Pelak was a form of agroforestry that was the combination of various plants of forestry and agriculture within the forest area. Aumeeruddy (1994) stated that Kerinci community had a specific management of their land. Every village in Kerinci had a particular area that consisted of rice farming and hilly land. Selection of the preferred species determined the success of agroforestry systems in increasing the welfare of the community. This study aimed to identify the plants species composition of agroforestry of Kerinci communities in hilly land and farmers' revenue levels from the agroforestry activities. Another aim was to analyze whether the choice of plants was already a natural stimuli and the benefits value of the agroforestry had been a benefit stimulus for the Kerinci community. 2. Literature Review 2.1 National Park National park is a nature conservation area which has a native ecosystem, managed by zoning system and is utilized for the purpose of research, science, education, support cultivation, tourism, and recreation (Act No. 5 of 1990). To achieve the objectives, the park is managed by zoning system that is spatial arrangement based on ecological conditions and function, social, economic and cultural of community that aims to facilitate the management of national park (Regulation of the Minister of Forestry No.: P56 / Menhut-II / 2006). National park is expected to have two orientations, that are preservation and conservation orientations (Wiratno et al. 2004). Both orientations should be carried out in balance. Therefore the management of national parks should have the following principles: (1) 2
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integration of capabilities and functions in accordance with the purpose of ensuring the sustainability of natural resources and the balance of the ecosystem for the welfare of the community, (2) social and economic functions of the environment embodied and organized by the government in accordance with its carrying capacity, and (3) noticed and recognizedthe rights of indigenous people and their rights over natural resources then regulated it to the extent that does not endanger the natural resources themselves. 2.2 Tri-Stimulus Amar Conservation Stimulus is a stimulation that causes someone or something to respond to or have a reaction to circumstances (Anwar 2013). The response is known as attitude. Definition of the stimulus in this study was the signals, phenomenon, or symptoms which were shown by the forest ecosystem components and land that could stimulate the community to respond. Signals in this study were informed or indicated by agroforestry activities under taken by the Kerinci community. Tri stimulus amar conservation is three stimuli that cause a person to take conservation actions. Tri stimulus amar consists of natural, benefit, and religious (willingly) stimuli (Zuhud 2007). Linkage between stimulus and responses in agroforestry system would enable improvement of Kerinci community welfare. This was due to the assumption that bio ecology (natural stimuli) and benefits (benefits stimuli) would be perceived by the community in, ecology, socio-culture, and economic. This study identified and analyzed the natural and benefits stimuli of agroforestry system that exist in the Kerinci community. Zuhud (2007) stated that establishment of tri-stimulus amar conservation concept need the following prerequisites: (1) it is aimed for a specific and unique local community that have interacted with forest and local natural resources in everyday life for a long time, even already have local knowledge on the biological resources from generation to generation, (2) access rights, ownership, rights to harvest and utilize the biological resources, as in point 1, must be well-defined, and (3) there must be succession of local knowledge from the older generation to the younger. 2.3 Agroforestry Agroforestry is a land management system that can be applied to agriculture and forests as a result of food insecurity situation in various regions in Indonesia. The vulnerability triggered by deforestation and ecological degradation in tropical regions, energy crisis and high population growth (Kartasubrata 2003). Local community considered agroforestry systems have the ability to fulfill the ecological, economic and socio-cultural function (Suhardjito 2002). Agroforestry can be defined as a system consisting of a large number of elements such as trees, shrubs, seasonal plants or grass. Physical appearance and dynamics in agroforestry are similar to natural primary and secondary forest ecosystems. Agroforestry system is not a forest that arranged slowly through natural transformation of its ecosystem, nevertheless the area/plantations planted through the process of cultivation. Agroforestry plantations were built on the land that had been cleared and the plants species are enriched. When the land is
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limited due to population growth, expansion of logging concession areas, resettlements, and commercial plantation forestry; the remaining lands are mostly agroforestry. 2.4 Community Income Level Act No. 16 of 1974 on the Basic Provisions of Social Welfare states that social welfare is a system of social life, material and spiritual, which encompass the sense of safety, decency and inner peace that enables every citizen to conduct efforts to fulfill physical, spiritual and social needs as well as possible for themselves, families and communities by up hold the human rights and obligations in accordance to Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. The level of welfare can be measured with a simple indicator which is based on physical and spiritual fulfillment in accordance with the standards of living of each family. A family categorized as prosperous fall the physical and spiritual needs are fulfilled. The powerful variable in describing family welfare is the level of family revenue or income which is affected by wages and productivity (Hidayat 1999).Whereas the level of a country welfare can be determined based on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) that is the index of a country's overall economic output by calculating the industrial production, farmers crop, retail sales and construction expenditures. However, GDP has some limitations in describing the level of social welfare, namely (1) when there is a great in equality in society (in terms of income distribution), GDP or other indicators which presented in per capita (per person) cannot describe the actual conditions in society, (2) statistical tools used in calculating GDP also failed to capture phenomenon that can improve the social welfare, and (3) presentation of statistical data often leads to misinterpretation of trends of economic phenomenon, (4) GDP is a unit, so it is inadequate to measure welfare over time, especially with regard to the economic, environmental and social dimensions that cover aspects of sustainability. 3. Materials and Method 3.1 Study Area and Ethnographic Background The research was conducted in Keluru Village of Keliling Danau District of Kerinci Regency of Jambi Province from February until April 2014 (2 months). Administratively, Keluru Village was part of Keliling Danau District of Kerinci Regency of Jambi Province. North of the village adjacent to the Danau KerinciVillage of Danau Kerinci District, the south by Lolo Kecil Village of Kerman District, the east by Jujun Village of Keliling Danau District, the west by Pidung Village of Keliling Danau District. The distance from Keluru Village to KSNP approximately 3-4 km, to Sungai Penuh District capital 20 km and to Jambi Province capital 450 km. Geographically, Keluru village covered an area of 559 ha, located between 02010'50"02026'30" south latitude and101030'15"-101050'20" east longitude. Keluru village had a tropical climate with an average temperature of 220C, rainfall of 120.3 mm3 per year, and high relative humidity ranged from 77% to 92%. The climate in the hilly and mountainous southern part were more varied, even the local climate could be different at a very close distance. 4
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3.2 Socio-Cultural of Keluru Community The population of Keluru Village was of 543 inhabitants, consisted of 263 men and 280 women (180 hauseholds). More than 54% of the population were labor force (18-56 years). Almost all members of the community (90%) were subsistence farmers while 10% were civil workers and other services. About 41% of the community had high school education.
Figure 1. Education Level of Keluru Community (Source: Village Data 2013) 3.3 Tool and Materials Voice recorder, digital camera, work map, GPS, equipments for herbarium collections such as scissors, envelopes, mounting paper, plastic bags of various sizes, hanging labels, newsprint, woven bamboo to press leaves, stationery, 70% alcohol. 3.4 Data and Collection Techniques Data collected included research sites general conditions, social and cultural conditions, composition of Pelak plant species, and community revenues from Pelak production. Data collection was conducted through participatory observation using structured questionnaire. There were 30 respondents randomly selected from the Keluru community. The data were analyzed qualitatively by constructing cross tabulation. The Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) adoption by Turner (1988) and Index of Importance Value (IIV) were calculated then analyzed whether they had become as stimuli. 4. Findings 4.1 Plant Composition of Pelak Identification of Pelak plants showed that the composition consisted of 15 crops species from nine families, namely Solanaceae, Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, Fabaceae, Papilionaceae, 5
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Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Brassicaceae, and Apiaceae. These crops had been planted on rice fields’ boundary. In addition, there were 12 species of plants from 12 families planted in the mixed plantation, namely Lauraceae, Euphorbiacea, Lauraceae, Arecaceae, Meliaceae, Rubiaceae, Graciniaceae, Bombacaceae, Poaceae, Styracaceae, Verbenaceae and Burseraceae (Table 1). Among those plants, cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii) had the highest IIV (43) (Table 2), meaning that the existence of cinnamon in natural ecosystems is still quite a lot marked by high density, dominance and frequency. Cinnamon also had the highest ICS (67) (Table 3) which indicated that cinnamon had a value of exclusivity, high quality and intensity. Table 1. Plant Composition of Pelak A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Local Name Rice fields boundary Cabe (Chili) Cabe rawit Jagung (corn) Jahe (ginger) Kacang belimbing Kacang panjang Kacang tanah Kangkung Kunyit (turmeric) Labu siam Pare (bitter fruit) Ubi jalar Kol (cabbage) Wortel (carrot) Kentang (potato) Mixed plantation Kayu manis Kemiri Alpokat (avocado) Pinang Surian Kawo/Kopi (coffee) Manggis Durian Bambu (bamboo) Kemenyan (myrrh) Kuini Kedondong
Species
Family
Habitus
Capsicum annum Linn. Capsicum frutescens Linn. Zea mays Linn. Zingiber officinale Roxb Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Vigna cylindrica (L.) Skeels Arachis hypogea Linn. Ipomea aquatica Forsk. Curcuma domestica Val. Sechium edule SW Momordica charantia Linn. Ipomoea batatas Poir. Brassica oleracea Linn Daucus carota Linn. Solanum tuberasum Linn.
Solanaceae Solanaceae Poaceae Zingiberaceae Fabaceaea Papilionaceae Fabaceaea Convolvulaceae Zingiberaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Convolvulaceae Brassicaceae Apiaceae Solanaceae
Shrub Shrub Bush Liana Bush Bush Bush Herbs Herbs Liana Liana Liana Herbs Herbs Bush
Cinnamomum burmannii Ness Leurites moluscana Linn Persea americana MILL Areca catechu L Toona ciliata Coffea arabica Linn Garcinia mangostana L Durio zibethinus Murr. Bamboosa sp Styrex benzoin L. Mangifera foetida L. Cannarium littorale Blume
Lauraceae Euphorbiaceae Lauraceae Arecaceae Meliaceae Rubiaceae Graciniaceae Bombacaceae Poaceae Styracaceae Verbenaceae Burseraceae
Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree
Table 2. Index of Importance Value (IIV) of Pelak Plant 1 2 3 4 5 6
Local Name Kayu manis Kemiri Alpokat Pinang Surian Kawo/Kopi
Species C.burmannii L. moluscana P. americana MILL A. catechu T. ciliata C. arabica Linn 6
Family Lauraceae Euphorbiaceae Lauraceae Arecaceae Meliaceae Rubiaceae
IIV 43 34 28 20 27 35 www.macrothink.org/jas
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7 8 9 10 11 12
Manggis Durian Bambu Kemenyan Kuini Kedondong
G. mangostana D. zibethinus Bamboosa sp S. benzoin
Graciniaceae Bombacaceae Poaceae Styracaceae Verbenaceae Burseraceae
M. foetida C. littorale Blume
18 21 17 20 20 17
Table 3. Plant Identification Based on Index of Cultural Significance ICS) 1
Local Name Kayu manis
Species C.burmannii
2
Surian
T. ciliata
Parts Used Bark, branch Trunk
3 4
Kawo/Kopi Kemenyan
C. arabica Linn S. benzoin
Bean Fruit, leaf
5 6 7
Jahe Durian Bambu
Z. officinale Roxb D. zibethinus Bamboosa sp
Tuber Fruit, trunk Stem
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Manggis Kemiri Pinang Labu siam Pare Kentang Kacang tanah Jagung Alpokat Kuini Kedondong Kunyit Cabe Cabe rawit Kol Wortel Kacang belimbing Ubi jalar Kacang panjang
G. mangostana L. moluscana A. catechu S. edule SW M. charantia Linn S. tuberasum Linn A. hypogea Linn. Z. mays Linn. P. americana MILL M. foetida C. littorale Blume C. domestica C. annum Linn. C. frutescens Linn. B. oleracea D. carota Linn. P. tetragonolobus
Kangkung
25 26 27
Usage Flavor, drink, firewood
ICS 67 39
Fruit , fruit skin Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Root Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Tuber Fruit Fruit Flower,leaf Root Fruit
craft, medicine, primary and mix material Drink Ritual, secondary material, medicine Seasoning, medicine Foodstuff, primary material Primary material, building material Foodstuff, medicine Foodstuff, dye Foodstuff, medicine Foodstuff, medicine Foodstuff, medicine Foodstuff Foodstuff Foodstuff Foodstuff, medicine Foodstuff Foodstuff Seasoning, medicine Spice Spice Vegetable Vegetable Foodstuff, medicine
I. batatas Poir. V. cylindrica (L.) Skeels
Root Fruit
Foodstuff Vegetable
8 8
I. aquatica Forsk.
Plant
Vegetable
6
trunk,
32 26 24 24 24 21 18 18 16 16 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 9 9 9 9 8
Table 4. ICS and IIV of Plants in the Mixed Plantation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Local Name Kayu manis Kemiri Alpokat Pinang Surian Kawo/Kopi Manggis
Species C.burmannii L. moluscana P. americana MILL A. catechu T. ciliata C. arabica Linn. G. mangostana 7
ICS 67 18 12 18 39 32 21
IIV 43 34 28 20 27 35 18 www.macrothink.org/jas
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8 9 10 11 12
Durian Bambu Kemenyan Kuini Kedondong
D. zibethinus Bamboosa sp S. benzoin M. foetida C. littorale Blume
24 24 26 12 12
21 17 20 20 17
Table 4 showed that ICS and IIV of cinnamon (Cinnamomun burmanii Nees) were equally the highest (67 and 43), followed by coffee (Coffea arabica Linn.) that had ICS and IIV as high as 32 and 35 (Figure 2).
Figure 2. ICS and IIV of Plants in the Mixed Plantation Plants with high ICS but low IIV (such as surian, mangosteen, durian, bamboo and myrrh) had many use sand were considered important by the community, but more or less difficult to find. Surian with ICS 39 had many cultural uses (intensity, exclusivity and quality) but not extensively plant eddue to lengthy harvest time.Surian wood harvested at the age of 25 years or more, and provide no direct benefits before harvested.The community prefered plants witha short harvest time. In contrast, plants with lower ICS but high IIV (such as avocado, kuini and kedondong) were not so important for the community, but their presences are aware plenty. This was because the seeds of these plants grow easily simply by throwing the seeds. 4.2 Income Level Farming in Keluru community had economic and ecological benefits. The economic benefit related to community livelihood in order to meet their daily needs and improve their welfare. While the ecological benefit was closely related to land environment such as soil fertility and water regulation.
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Table 5. Number and Percentage of Households by Land Ownership Categories Household Number 6 19 5
Land Ownership 1 2 3
Small (0.2-0.5 ha) Medium (>0.5-1.0 ha) Large (> 1.0-2.0 ha)
(%) 20.00 63.33 16.67
Interviews of 30 respondents showed that the land ownership ranged between 0.2-2.0 ha which divided into three categories: small (0.2 to 0.5 ha), medium (> 0.5 to 1.0 ha), and large (> 1.0 to 2.0 ha) (Table 5). Approximately 80% of Keluru household owned medium to large land and only 20% owned small land. This indicated that the average land ownership was quite large and none of the households was landless. This was because the available land was quite extensive, both obtained by opening new land or from in heritance. Soentoro (1981) stated that the land is an important as set for rural communities, because it is a natural resource that can be managed into a source of income. The larger the land owner ship, the greater the possibility of the household to obtain a high income. This was particularly true in Keluru community; a household with larger are a ownership had a better standard of living as could be seen in the level of education, health, and their food choices. Families who had high income levels generally sent their children to pursue higher education outside the village. Community revenue was derived from the production of 15 crops and 12 forest plants which were planted in Pelak (Table 6). Table 6. Pelak Plants Production per Year
25,000 15,000 1,200 80 90 200 100 700 300 100 100
Price (IDR/unit) 12,000 15,000 4,000 10,000 8,000 17,000 3,000 500 3,000 4,000 3,000
Income (IDR) 300,000,000
100 80 50 200 25,000 800 10
4,000 5,000 3,000 4,000 9,000 8,000 2,000,000
400,000 400,000 150,000 800,000 225,000,000 6,400,000 20,000,000
Plant
Unit
Household
Production
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Cabe Cabe rawit Jagung Jahe Kacang belimbing Kacang tanah Kacang panjang Kangkung Kunyit Labu siam Ubi jalar
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg bundle Kg Kg Kg
18 10 6 6 10 15 16 7 20 15 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Pare Kentang Kol Wortel Kayu manis Kemiri Surian
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg m3
17 8 9 5 30 12 7 9
225,000,000 4,800,000 800,000 720,000 3,400,000 300,000 350,000 900,000 400,000 300,000
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19 20 21 22
Durian Alpokat Pinang Kawa/kopi
Fruit kg kg kg
5 5 7 14
200 125 150 4,100
5,000 4,000 4,000 9,000
1,000,000 500,000 600,000 36,900,000
23 24 25 26
Manggis Bambu Kemenyan Kuini
kg stem kg kg
3 12 20 5
90 130 35 160
8,000 2,000 25,000 9,000
720,000 260,000 875,000 1,440,000
27
Kedondong
kg
6
120
4,000
480,000 832,895,000
Total Revenue
Note: The price was at the time of the study and could be changed at any time Table 6 showed that the production of cinnamon could reach as high as 25,000 kg per year. Cinnamon bark were cut about 30-50cm, then skinned and dried. Dried bark could be sold or stored. Fresh cinnamon bark could also be sold directly although it must be skinned first. Fresh cinnamon bark was cheaper than the dry. At the time of this study, the price of dry cinnamon bark was IDR9,000 per kg, while fresh bark was only IDR 6,000-7,000. According to respondents, cinnamon prices in previous years were decreased, even fresh bark price as low as IDR 2,500. Table 6 also showed that the total revenue from Pelak was IDR 832,895,000 per year or IDR27,763,167 per household per year. Sayogyo (1977) stated that the level of welfare can be measured in absolute and relative. Absolute measurement based on the amount of revenue that is converted to the value of rice. There are 3 categories of poverty in absolute measurements, namely (1) poor if the spending is less than 320 kg rice per capita per year, (2) very poor when the spending between 180-240 kg rice per capita per year, and (3) most poor if the spending is less than 180 kg of rice per capita per year. At the time of the study, the price ofrice was IDR 9.000-10.000 per kg, so that poor people spentless than IDR 2,880,000-3,200,000 percapita per year. If a household consisted of four members, then a poor household spent less than IDR 11,520,000-12,800,000 per year. The average revenue of households from Pelak in the Keluru Village approximately IDR27,763,167, so it could be concluded that no one in Keluru community was below the poverty line. This agreed with the information from the Head of Keluru Village that Keluru community was a prosperous and pre-prosperous community. 4.3 Natural-Benefit Stimuli of Pelak The result of the study revealed that cinnamon (C.burmannii) was the most culturally important to Keluru community. This plant had the highest Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) and Index of Importance Value (IIV) which indicated that cinnamon was preferred by the community and its existence in nature was plenty. This was closely related to natural stimulus concerning information of scarcity, population, and regeneration of cinnamon. The Keluru community did not understand or captured the signal that conveyed information about scarcity due to high population and regeneration of the cinnamon trees in their Pelak. 10
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Cinnamon natural stimulus existed in the Keluru community because it had been passed down from generation to generation. Zuhud (2007) stated that plants, habitats and cultures are unified as a whole in the community life. Cinnamon and Keluru community had unified so that cinnamon planting was driven by willingness and not by obligation. This was in line with the opinion that various and long term relationship between community and their environment tend to make people appreciate the wholeness of the ecosystem in the long term, contrarily with the community whose relationship to the environment is limited to one or two specific objectives. All of their respondents chose to grow cinnamon and they understood its bio ecology (profile, habitat, morphology and benefits). As for the benefits stimulus, Keluru community was aware of cinnamon benefits, especially its economic value. Cinnamon is a high-value crop because its bark can be harvested when the plant reach the age of 5years up to 25 years. The community considered cinnamon planting investment (savings) because cinnamon bark could be sold whenever they need money. Zuhud (2007) stated that the stimulus of species biodiversity was unique and specific and addressed to specific subject as well. Natural and benefits stimuli were ideally simultaneously perceived. However, reality in communities showed that the benefits stimulus of biological resources were perceived more rapidly by the community, gave rise to certain responses. This was because information about the benefits was already evolved. However, if other stimuli (natural and religious) were not understood and not became the stimuli of cinnamon planting attitude then there would be unsustainable cinnamon planting. 5. Conclusions Composition of plant species in Keluru community’s agroforestry (Pelak) consisted of 15 species of crops from 12 families i.e. chili, cabe rawit, corn, ginger, star fruit nuts, long beans, peanuts, kangkung, turmeric, labu siam, bitter fruit, sweet potatoes, cabbage, carrot and potato. Other than crops, the Pelak also cocnsisted of 12 perennial plants species from 12 families i.e. cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii), kemiri (Ledtes moluscana), avocado (Persea amaericana), pinang (Areca catechu), surian (Toona cillata), coffee (Coffea arabica), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostama), durian (Durio zibethinus), bamboo (Bamboosa sp), myrrh (Styrex benzoin), kuini (Mangifera foetida) and kedondong (Canarium littorale). Cinnamon had significant values inculture and Pelak ecosystem which indicated by the highest Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) and Index of Importance Value (IIV). Selection of the plants revealed that Keluru community perceived and responded to natural stimulus of the selected plants as shown by community’s understanding of these plants bioecology. The benefits of agroforestry crops could improve the welfareof Keluru community showed by revenues that were above the poor category when converted to the value of rice percapita per year and the high degree of choicein determining education. This indicates that the selection and management of the agroforestry activities by Keluru communities was a response to benefit stimuli from these activities.
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Acknowledgement The research is financed by Higher Education (DIKTI) through a research competitive grants. Many thanks to Prof Ervizal AM Zuhud, Prof Hardjanto, Prof Y. Purwanto and Dr Agus Hikmat for their help in improving the manuscript. We especially thank of the community’s Keluru who voluntarily shared collected data. References Aumeeruddy, Y. (1994). Shifting from simple to complex agroforestry systems: an example for buffer zone management from Kerinci (Sumatra, Indonesia). Systems, 28, 113-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00704825 Kartasubrata, J. (2003). Social forestry dan agroforestry di Indonesia. Lab Politik Ekonomi dan Sosial Kehutanan Fakultas Kehutanan Institut Pertanian Bogor. Buku I Michon, G. et al. (2000). Ketika kebun berupa hutan : agroforest khas indonesia sebuah sumbangan masyarakat. International Centre For Research in Agroforestry . Bogor Indonesia Peraturan Menteri Kehutanan No P.56/Menhut-II/2006 tentang Penatazonasian Kawasan Taman Nasional. Purwanto, Y. (2004). Etnobotani masyarakat tanimbar-kei maluku tenggara sistem pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan. Perhimpunan Masyarakat Etnobotani Indonesia Bogor Pustaka Penelitian Biologi LIPI Turner, N. J. (1988). The importance of a rose: evaluating the cultural significant of plants in thompson and lilloet interior salish. American Antropologist , 90(2), 272-29. Undang-Undang No 5 Tahun 1990 tentang Konservasi Sumberdaya Alam Hayati Beserta Ekosistemnya. Dalam Lampiran Perundangan Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia Wiratno, D. (2004). Berkaca di cermin retak refleksi konservasi dan implikasi bagi pengelolaan taman nasional. The Gibbon Foundation Indonesia Departemen Kehutanan, PILI-NGO Movement Zuhud, E. A. M. (2007). Sikap masyarakat dan konservasi suatu analisis kedawung (parkia timoriana (dc) merr.) sebagai stimulus tumbuhan obat bagi masyarakat, Kasus di Taman Nasional Meru Betiri. [Disertasi]. Bogor (ID) Sekolah Pasca Sarjana IPB.
Copyright Disclaimer Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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Farmers’ Perceptions on Climate Variability and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Cinzana, Mali Touré Halimatou A (Corresponding author) Department of Civil Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi Ghana. Zampaligré Nouhoun Centre International de Recherche , Developpement sur l’Elevage en Zone Sub humide (CIRDES), and Institut de l’Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles (INERA), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso Traoré Kalifa Rural Economic Institute, Soil-Water-Plant Laboratory, Sotuba. Bamako, Mali Kyei-Baffour N. Department of Agricultural Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana.
Received: April 18, 2016
Accepted: May 1, 2016
Published: June 8, 2016
doi:10.5296/jas.v4i3.9331
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jas.v4i3.9331
Abstract Several studies predict that climate change will highly affect the African continent. These changes in climate and climate variability may be challenging issues for future economic development of the continent in general, and particularly in the region of sub Saharan Africa. Offering a case study of Sahelian zone of Mali in the present study aimed to understand farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and change and to evaluate adaptation options used by farmers in the Cinzana commune of Mali. One hundred and nineteen farmers were interviewed using a questionnaire designed with six sections. The result showed that all farmers interviewed were aware of climate change and climate variability. The Farmers perceived a decrease in annual rainfall variability and an increase of temperature as main factors of climate change and climate variability. The observed meteorological data, showed a 13
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decrease of precipitation distribution during the last 14 years of which was observed by farmers. Several strategies such as selling animals, use of improved crop varieties, new activities (outside agriculture) and credit were the commonly preferred adaptation strategies to deal with climate change and variability. Factors surveyed, age, gender, education, household size, farm size were found to be significantly correlated to self-reported to adaptation. Keyword: farmers, perception, adaptation, climate change, climate variability, Cinzana commune 1. Introduction Climate change causes extreme weather and unpredictable events which impact and increasingly affect crop growth, availability of soil water, soil erosion, droughts and dry spells, floods, sea level rise with prevalent of pest infestations and diseases (Adejuwon, 2004; Zoellick and Robert, 2009). Many studies have shown that climate change will highly affect the African continent and will be one of the most challenging issues for future economic development, particularly in the sub-Saharan Africa (Roudier et al., 2011). Because most of the population rely on natural resources, they are often practical affected by climate variability and change, especially the poorest (Morton, 2007). Particularly, smallholder farmers in sub- Saharan Africa are strongly impacted (Sivakumar et al., 2005). Local societies already have in-depth knowledge of local climate change and variability as parts of their local ecological knowledge, obtained and transferred through generations (Berke et al., 2000). Several scholars on climate change perception deals with precipitation and temperature in terms of the annual amount, the length and annual distribution of rainfall (Deressa et al., 2009; Fisher et al., 2010). Meteorological data are used to confirm local farmers’ assessment of climate change. However, some authors emphasized the need to consider climate in a wider context such as in health or polices (Mubaya et al., 2012; Shackleton and Shackleton, 2012). According to Parrry et al. (2007), climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global scale. It is predicted that global warming will have important effect on agriculture (McCarthy et al., 2001; Funk et al., 2008). These determine the biosphere’s capacity to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. Overall impact of climate change on agriculture will depend on changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and changes in pests and diseases; (Fisher et al., 2002). Studies show that Africa’s agriculture will be affected negatively by climate change (McCarthy et al., 2001; Dinar et al., 2008; Pearce et al., 1996). About 25-42 % of species in Africa could be lost, affecting both non-food and food crops. Habitat change has already been observed in some areas leading to species shifts, changes in plant diversity including plant-based medicine and food (McClean et al., 2005). Eleven per cent of arable land will be affected by climate change in the developing countries, which might lead to a decrease of cereal production in up to 65 countries and about 16 % of agricultural GDP (FAO, 2005). Climate change will hardly harm the agricultural sector in West Africa if any adaptation actions are not taken (Rosenzweig and Parry, 1994; Adger et al., 2003), but the negative 14
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impact of climate change can significantly be reduced if appropriate adaptation practices are adopted (Waha et al., 2013). The type of adaptation practices and strategies to be undertaken is to some extent first determined by famers’ perceptions of climate change (Roncoli et al., 2001; Thomas et al., 2007). It is widely acknowledging in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) that global climate is changing. In the same way, there is general consensus that the Sahel will get hotter as a result of global warming. The temperature in the Sahel will increase by 1.2 ˚C in 2030 as compared to current temperatures. (Butt et al., 2006). The Sahel is expected to heat up more than the rest of the globe because in-land areas will become warmer than temperatures over the oceans. In the Sahel, temperatures are already close to the maximum for plant growth, especially at the starting of the season. Experiments with different levels of shading showed that temperature has a pronounced effect on millet production in the Sahel (Vandenbeldt and Williams, 1992). There is therefore, the need to know farmers perceive climate, changes in climate and the environment (Kemausuor et al., 2011). In fact, perception of farmers of climate variability and how these perceptions determine the choice of coping or adaptation strategies (Vedwan, 2006), have been investigated by previous studies in West African Sahel (Akponikpe et al., 2010; Kyekyeku, 2012; Zampaligré et al., 2013; Sanfo et al., 2014; Traore et al., 2014, Kima et al., 2015). Climate change confirmed by most of the farmers up to 98 % of respondents was dependent on the geographical area and prevailing climate across five 5 countries of West Africa (Akponikpè et al., 2010). In the Sahel, more proportion of farmers perceived the change to have started between 20-30 years ago or more while the majority of them perceived it to be less than 10 years ago in the Guinean areas. Farmers in Burkina Faso understood climate change variability primarily based on weather-crop interactions and on events that are associated with climatic fluctuations. Their perceptions were additionally shaped by the cultural frame. Farmers mentioned more erratic rainfall patterns, decreased rainfall amounts, increased temperatures, winds and radiation. In Mali, small scale rural farmers are depended to agricultural sector which depend on rainfall for crop production. According to Butt et al. (2005), national agricultural production earnings in Mali will likely decrease from US$ 417 million in 1996 to US$ 256 million by 2030 because of climate change. Like the other sahelians rural population especially whose livelihoods strongly rely on natural resources are already facing many challenges due to their harsh environment (desertification, recurrent droughts and sometimes floods) and poor socio-economic conditions (Mortimore and Adams, 2001). This study aimed at assessing Cinzana farmers in the Sahel zone in Mali perception on climate change variability and their adaptation practices to overcome or reduce the negative impact of climate change on their farming system as well as their livelihoods. 2. Material and Methods 2.1 Overview of the Study Area This research was conducted in the Cinzana commune in the circle of Segou in the Segou Region of south-central Mali. Cinzana is located around latitude 13’15 N, longitude 5’58 W with an altitude of 289 m. The characteristic feature is the alternation of long dry season from 15
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November to May and raining season from June to October. The average annual rainfall of the last ten years is 650-750 mm. This amount which is unevenly distributed over the period is insufficient for the needs of crops which largely explains the successive years of crop failure. The average temperature ranged between 28-33 °C with 39-40 °C as the highest and lower threshold of 8 °C to 12 °C.
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Figure 1. The location of the study area Cinzana rural town has a population of 37,572 composing of 18,727 (52%) males and 18,844 (48%) females. . The main economic activity of the commune is agriculture and the main crops are millet, sorghum and maize. The produce is primarily intended for home consumption because of poor rainfall, low soil fertility, and high cost of inputs which makes the production expensive . However, some farmers using improved technologies developed by the Institut D’Economie Rurale du Mali are able to generate surpluses that are traded on the weekly market at Cinzana. Farmers grow secondary crops like fonio, groundnuts, bambara groundnut, cowpea and sesame. A series of on-farm surveys were conducted at Cinzana in 2013. One hundred and nineteen farmers’ household including women and youth were randomly selected in the villages and were interviewed using structured questionnaire. The following formula was used to select the number of farmers: n = t² x N/t2 + (2e)2 (N-1) x
t:Confidence level ( value of the confidence level of 95% which is 1.96)
x
N= Size of the population (number of households in this case) 17
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x
n: minimum sample size to obtain significant results for an event and obtain significant result for an event and a given level of risk
x
e= level of precision (state to 10% in this study)
Then the formula will be: n= The structured questionnaire collected information on farming systems, perception on climate change and concerns for climate change. The questionnaire was designed in English and French but interviews were conducted in the local language, Bambara. The questionnaire was designed under the following 6 sections: Section A describes the general information related to the farmers which included the socio-economic characteristics of the households and farming activities. Data collected were age groups, gender, educational level, secondary activity practices, household size, main crop, land holding, average duration of continuous crop farming, fallow use and fallow age. Section B concerned farm production, which focused on food coverage, food self-sufficiency, crop yield and yield patterns for the last ten years. Section C dealt with farmers perceptions on climate change. The data collected were on climate change impact, the different measures taken by farmers against the climate change impact, access to meteorological data and meteorological data type, and the identification of traditional methods for predicting weather. Section E was on vulnerability and climatic risk management. Data recorded were on mitigation and adaptation strategies, food security and main climate change adaptation strategies. Interviews were conducted in November 2013. The questionnaire was pretested for its suitability before interviews were conducted. The pretesting include behaviour coding of interviewer/respondent interactions, interviewer debriefings, respondent debriefings and the analysis of item nonresponse rates and response distributions. Precipitation and temperature data were sourced from the Cinzana Meteorological station over the period from 1961 to 2014. The data gave an overview of the trends of precipitation and temperature and the vulnerability of the region to drought. 2.2 Data Analyses Data from the questionnaire were coded and then analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20) and MS Excel software. Descriptive statistical tool such as means, standard deviations, frequencies and percentages were used to summarize and categorize the information gathered. Cross tabulation were used to compare group’s means. Correlation analysis was used to determine whether household income rather than education 18
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level significantly influenced adaptation strategies to climate variability and change. For the climatic variables analysis, the annual rainfall average and index of Nicholson (RI) which is a reduced central variable calculated on annual precipitation to highlight fluctuations in rainfall patterns were calculated. It is the ratio of the difference in inter-annual to average standard deviation of annual precipitation amounts. Nicholson indices play a very important role in determining precipitation fluctuations (wet, normal and dry period). Nicholson et al. (1988) cited by Paturel et al. (1997) have defined an index which is calculated for each year as
Where: RI: Rainfall Index Xi: Rainfall in year in millimeters X: Average height of average rainfall over the period of study in millimeters σ = standard deviation of the rainfall over the study period. The Nicholson index determines a reduced central variable (Lamb, 1982) as quoted by (Servat et al., 1998). Inter-annual average of a series is the index zero (0) by the method of Nicholson. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents About 92.7 % of famers interviewed in the survey were male headed households and aged between 36 and 55 years. Data showed that about 13.4% of household heads attended secondary school, 31.8% attended primary school and 48.7% were illiterates. The average household size was more than 20 people by 55.6 %. Also, 52.1% of the household heads were polygamous. The most experienced farmer in term of average duration of continuous farming was 50 years. Millet was the main cereal crop grown in the locality and is grown by 63 % of the farmers followed by sorghum 27 % and maize with 8 % (Fig. 2). Farmers found that millet contributed the most to satisfy their subsistence needs and income followed by sorghum and maize. The reasons for high cultivation of millet among farmers is attributed its high productivity, consumer preference and drought tolerance. About 46% of farmers grew millet because of its high productivity, 16 % grew it because of its consumer preferred traits and 21% cultivated millet because of its tolerance to drought (Fig. 3)
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Figure 2. Main crops cultivated by farmers at Cinzana in 2013 The population of Cinzana is dominated by relatively young people of less than 60 years old and male headed households. These male headed households are the active population in the locality. The main socioeconomic factors that impacted on adaptation decisions were level of education, gender and age of the household head, household size and years of farming experience. Effect of age on farmers’ adaptation to technology contradicts existing in literature (Teklewold et al., 2006; Glwadys, 2009). In the view of Teklewold et al. (2006) and Glwadys (2009) adaption is mostly influenced by location or technology and specific findings of age are interesting empirical results. This is because the decision to adopt a technology is not easily accepted by older farmers compared to younger farmers. The average size of a household in this locality was very large (20 persons) compared too many households in other locations in Mali. In Cinzana, female-headed households were non-existence as females are supported by men for subsistence according to their culture. However, women can practice some activities to improve their main source of income. Household size influenced the decision to adapt. Therefore, household size is a proxy to labour availability and may influence adoption of the new technology positively as its availability reduce the labour constraints (Teklewold et al., 2006), However, there is a possibility that households with many family members may distract the labour force to off-farm activities in attempts to earn income to ease the consumption pressure imposed by the large family size (Tizle, 2007). The gender of household head influenced the decision to adopt the change. Several scholars in Africa have shown that women have access to critical resource (cash, land and labour), which often undermines their ability to carry out intensive labour agriculture innovation (Quisumbing et al., 1995; De Groote and Coulibaly, 1998). According to Nhemachena and Hassan (2007), female-headed households are more likely to take up climate change adaptation methods. A number of studies found that, the possible reason for this observation is that in most local smallholder farming communities in the region, men are more often 20
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based in towns and much of the agriculture work is done by women (Nhemachena and Hassan (2007); Quisumbing et al., 1995; De Groote and Coulibaly, 1998). However, level of education and literacy rate provides information about development at regional and national levels and they reflect people’s chances of alternative sources of income and livelihood. The literacy rate among farmers in Cinzana is substantially very low, only 13.4% of people have attained secondary education. The farmers who attained secondary education level rely firstly on subsistence farming as their main source of income. Education level is often an assumption to increase in the understanding of adoption a new technology (Adesina and Forson 1995; Daberkow and McBride, 2003). This is because education is expected to increase the ability to receive, and understand information relevant to making innovative decision (Wozniak, 1984). With an average rainfall of 650 mm in Cinzana, millet is largely cultivated, particularly on marginal lands. These areas are further characterized by variable and a short rainy season, irregular rainfall and a high evaporative demand (high radiation and temperatures). Lastly, the soils are acidic with low mineral fertility (specially low in phosphorous) and organic matter content. For all of these reasons, millet is considered to be the farmers preferred crop in Cinzana because of the low rainfall and adverse soil factors. Experience of farming probably increase the uptake of all adaptation option because of farmers’ experiences that make them have better knowledge and information on change in climatic conditions as well as crop and livestock management practices (Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008).
Figure 3. Cinzana farmer’s reasons for crop choices
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3.2 Farmers’ Perceptions of Climate Change and Variability and its Impacts on Their Farming System All the respondent in the region believe that the climate is changing and is no longer as it was some years back. Each farmer gave their perception on each of the following factors: length of rainy season, soil fertility, crop yield, vegetation cover, temperature and drought. Figure 4 indicates that 94.1 % of the respondents perceived a decrease in the length of the rainy season. The respondents perceived a decrease in soil fertility as represented by 68.9% (Fig. 4). Most of the soils in the locality were very poor in fertility. About 27.7% of the farmers interviewed indicated that the loss of the vegetation cover was due to climate change. Surprisingly, only 15.9% of the respondents’ had perception of climate change indicated a decreased crop yield; 10.9% of respondents observed drought while 8.4% found temperature change over the years. The farmers were using local knowledge to predict weather. More than 50% of the farmers traditionally referred to tree flowering in the region for weather prediction while 38% use animal migration. Other less important factors are direction of wind (4.2 %) and change in temperature (1.6 %). Furthermore, the respondents were asked about their perception on climate change and climate variability and their effect on the environment. Most of the farmers (87%) indicated that agricultural areas have expanded followed by more vegetable cultivation and lowland cultivation with 69% (Fig. 5) They also found that forest areas (trees) have reduced by (65%) and the savannah ( the grazing area) has also decreased (61% ). Figure 6 indicates that 94.1% of the respondents perceived a decrease in the length of the rainy season.
Figure 4. Farmers’ perceptions of climate change and variability in Cinzana commune in 2013 NB: L.O.R: length of rainy season, L.S.F: Low soil fertility, L.C.Y: low yield, L.O.V.C: Loss of vegetation cover, C.I.T: Change in temperature and DRO: Drought.
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Figure 5. Farmer’s perception of climate change and variability in the environment at Cinzana in 2013 Smallholder farmers in Cinzana are aware of climate variability and change, principally through their experiences by appreciating the length of the rainy season, soil fertility, crop yield, vegetation cover, temperature and drought. Some changes were observed on farmers’ knowledge as factors used to predict weather. These included change in flowering period for some trees in the region, animal migration especially some birds, wind intensity and direction and high temperatures.. This perception agrees with the general opinion that climate is changing (IPCC, 2007; McCarthy et al., 2008; Orindi and Eriksen, 2005; Lobel et al., 2013; Alexander, 2013). Furthermore, studies on farming perception in semi-arid environment of Africa (Nyanga et al., 2011; Osbahr et al., 2011) and farmer perception on climate variability and change in semi-arid Zimbabwe e (Moyo et al., 2012) showed similar findings. This study indicated that farmers at Cinzana believe that climate is changing, and it was perceived to affect agricultural productivity negatively. There is, however, divergence of perceptions amongst the farmers, as indicated by the results of what is causing the change in agricultural productivity. Famers reported a number of changes within their location; however, contradictions were apparent among them about the exact nature and the intensity of the changes. This may explain the different perceptions farmers have on effect climate variability and climate change had on agricultural production and productivity. Therefore, climate change and variability is often given as the main reason for crop failure and food shortage (Traore et al., 2014; Mishra et al., 2008; Sultan et al., 2005).
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Figure 6. Traditional method to perceived climate change and variability for Cinzana commune farmers 3.3 Climatological Evidence Compared to Famers’ Perceptions 3.3.1 Rainfall and Temperature Data There were two periods regarding the rain season in the study area (Fig. 7). The dry period from 2000 to 2007 showing rainfall index supported by negative value index of this period, while the wet period from 2008 to 2012 showed a positive rainfall index value. The analysis showed the beginning of the dry period was supported by negative rainfall index for the 2013 year; which is in agreement with farmers’ perceptions in this study. Overall there was a decrease of precipitation distribution during the 14 years of observations since 8 out of the 14 years indicated a negative index against 6/14 for the positive index. Rainfall is the most important variable that farmers perceived since it had a clear signal in the record of climate. The analysis of temperature means during the same period showed a clear increase in temperature from 2000 to 2007 while from 2008 to 2012 it decreased (Fig. 8.). This was not in agreement with farmers in the study area. Few of the respondents perceived that temperature had changed, and could be explained by the fact that in the Sahelian agro ecological zone, farmers focus more on rainfall distribution than temperature.
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Figure 7. Annual rainfall indexes (mm) from 2000 to 2013 in Cinzana (Data source: Cinzana meteorological Station)
Figure 8. Annual temperature means from 2000 to 2013 (Data source: Cinzana meteorological Station). The decrease of annual rainfall indicated by farmers was confirmed through an analyses of observed historical data in southern Mali (Mouhamed et al., 2013; Traore et al., 2014), showing an increase in the inter-annual rainfall variability. Furthermore, a study by Cooper et al. (2008) supports the same results for the Sub-Saharan Africa. In several countries, significant results between observed and farmers perception of climate change and variability were found (Apata et al., 2009; Deressa et al., 2009). However, most farmers perceived a continuous decrease of annual rainfall which was not confirmed by the analysis of climate data. No clear change in total precipitation was observed over the last five decades in the Sudanian zone of Mali (Traore et al., 2013). Changes in annual rainfall that farmers think they have been experiencing could be caused by the increase and decrease in the year to year variability of seasonal rainfall (Balme et al., 2006). However, farmers may be reporting overall decline which could be attributed to temperature increase. For temperature, some farmers’ perception of a substantial increase matches the 25
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empirical observations for the region very well (Hulme et al., 2001). Farmers linked the temperature increase to a change in the number of drought days in the growing season, as these are perceived to be hot. Osbahr et al. (2011) showed that temperature increases led to increased evapotranspiration rates by linking to the faster depletion of soil water. Researchers found the high levels of depletion of soil water resulted from high rates of evapotranspiration normally leading to crop wilting, and causing crop failure, which the farmer may be attributing to a decline in rainfall. 3.4. Coping and adaptation Mechanisms to Climate Change and Variability To cope with the negative impacts of the perceived change in climate patterns on their farming systems, the majority of the farmers in the study areas have adopted some adaptation strategies and coping practices. Among these practices, the most commonly adopted strategies were the use of adapted crop varieties such as drought or pest tolerant crop varieties, early sowing and the use of organic mature as fertiliser. Other practices were the systematic use of chemical fertilizers, change in cropping system, more labour investment and rainwater harvesting. Table 1 indicates that about 75% of the respondents interviewed used adapted crop varieties that are the most tolerant to drought for the zone while 73.1% use early crop sowing for the different crop varieties to optimise the available moisture in the soil. Concerning organic manure use as an adaptation practice, 32.8% of the respondents used this to reduce the impact of climate change and climate variability. Other strategies mentioned by respondents were the use of chemical fertilizer (28.6% ), cropping system (13.4% ) and rainwater harvesting (1.7% ). Table 1. Coping strategies to climate change and variability of farmers in Cinzana commune in 2013 Adopted practices Farmer’s response (%) Adaptation practices Yes Variety adapted 75.6 Early sowing 73.1 Organic manure use 32.8 Mineral fertilizer use 28.6 Cropping system changes 13.4 Rainwater harvesting 1.7 Coping practices Yes Cropping system 65.5 Organic manure 63.5 Use of adapted crops 41.2 Rainwater harvesting 3.4 Livestock selling 0.8 Buying supplies 0.8 Results of adaptation strategies to climatic stressors undertaken by households are given in Figure 9. The major adaptation mechanisms include selling livestock especially small 26
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ruminants and poultry (42% ), utilization of improved crop seeds and seeking other activities outside agriculture (11.7% ), getting credit (10% ) and use of manure (8.4% ).
Figure 9. Farmer’s adaptation strategies to climate change and variability in Cinzana commune, 2013. NB: Imp.crop seed= improve crop seed, Man. Use= manure used, Liv. Sell= livestock selling, Act. Div= activities diversification Descriptive statistics results have shown that farmers in the study area have adapted to the effect of climate change through a number of mechanisms. Households have multiple strategies related to agriculture and engaged in off-farm activities to complement their household incomes and food in case of adverse conditions in agriculture. The majority of respondents reported that they have used more than one type of adaptation and coping strategies. This decision implies that a single strategies is inadequate in adapting to the impact of climate change as a combination of several strategies is likely to be more effective than a single strategy. The major coping mechanisms to climate change undertaken by households were adapted crop seed varieties; which is different from the studies on coping mechanisms by Fana and Asnake (2012) in Ethiopia, Quay (2008), Kyekyeku (2012) in Ghana, and Bardege et al. (2013) in where? who obtained various diversified coping strategies in response to climate change, which most of them related to the coping mechanism found in the study. The findings reveal that households in Cinzana commune had several adaptation strategies in response to the effect of climate change and variability. The major strategies included use of adapted varieties, use of organic matter and selling of animals. This implies that climate variability and change is not a new phenomenon to the Cinzana commune. Those strategies are not strange but have a close relationship to those carried out elsewhere. However, a study done in 11 African countries by Nhemachena and Rashid (2008) found that diversified adaptation mechanisms to climate change such as diversifying production, using different improved varieties, changing planting dates, increased irrigation, use of insurance, water conservation, prayers, soil conservation were used., The adaptation strategies adopted in 27
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different regions or countries depend on their level of economic development, technology, financial capacity, institutional support and traditions. Therefore, each region tends to have most similar adaptation strategies adopted. 3.5. Correlation Estimation of Some Factors Influencing the Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Effects To diagnose correlation, the contingency coefficient test was applied and omits independent variables that are strongly correlated and dependent on each other (Table 2.) were used. The study observed multi-correlation between age and farming experience, sex and farming experience, household size and number of farms, secondary activities and farming experience, sex and education, education and household size, sex and number of farms. Table 2. Correlation of factors studied on adaptation mechanisms in Cinzana commune Ag
Gen
Edu
Hldsize
Adpstra
Farsize
Farexp Income
Age
1
Gender
-0.019
1
Edu
-0.127
-0.177*
1
HldSiz
0.169*
-0.122
.164*
1
Adstra
0.057
0.099
-0.005
0.073
Landsize
0.132
-0.184*
0.110
0.355** 0.013
1
Farexp
0.208**
-0.228** 0.089
0.255** -0.038
0.262**
1
Income
0.004
-0.161
0.112
-0.057
-0.050
0.068
1
0.170
1
* Correlation is significant at 0.05 level ** Corelation is significant at 0.01 level NB: Ag= age, Gen: gender, Edu= education, Hldize= household size, Adpstra= adaptation strategies, Farsize= farm size, Farexp: farming experience The results of correlation (Table 2.) indicated a positive correlation (0.01 %) between age and farming experience. This means that farming experience significantly increase with increase in the number of years of the respondent in farming . Experienced farmers see the need to adapt to climate variability and change effects. Furthermore, these older farmers may be more interested in the following traditional methods familiar to them rather than adopting modern farming techniques. Acquah (2011) and Quayum et al. (2012) found similar results but negative significance. Their findings may be because young adults have more motivation to act on perceived changes in order to cope with it. The ability to adapt depends on individual’s motivation to act (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, young adults are able and have energy to get jobs outside agriculture and can also diversify agricultural production which can help them get more income to adopt other adaptation. The influence of farmers’ gender was negatively correlated to the educational level, the number of farms and highly correlated to the farming experience negatively. This influence of gender is because the males were more likely to adapt than their female counterparts since in 28
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many African traditions the females have less access to land and other socio-economic resources constraining the adaptive capacity of females to adapt to climate change and variability. It was reported by International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI, 2001) and Meinzen-Dich et al. (2010) on gender studies that unequal distribution of assets between males and females in rural households was in favour of males. The results from this study agrees with those results by Tenge and Hella (2004) and Nabikolo et al. (2012). The study also showed a high correlation between the household size and the number of farms and farming experiences. Households with high number of people have more land and more experiences in farming. They are more likely to adapt than their counterparts with small land because those farmers may open up large gardens and plant more crops. People who own more land may rent out some of their land in order to generate more income for the household and be able to adapt more appropriately than those who have less land (Nabikolo et al. (2012). Advancing Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation (ACCCA, 2010) reported that large farm sizes positively influences adaptation strategies such as the use of growing trees and improved varieties of crops and livestock. 4.6 Conclusion Farmers in Cinzana commune are conscious and aware of climate change and climate variability, and saw it as a real risk to their livelihood. Various adaptation strategies were used by the farmers in response to climate change through the expansion of their farms, which subsequently result in environmental degradation. Farmers’ perceptions of climatic variability are in line with climatic data records. Indeed, farmers in Cinzana are able to recognize reduction in rainfall. The study found that use of improved crop varieties was the major adoption strategy among farmers’ adaptation strategies in Cinzana because yield can be increase through improved crop management. Gender, size of land and age of household head are the significant determinants of adaption strategies. Those factors can be identified as influential characteristics of farmers who adopt coping strategies to climate change and variability effects. This study represents a preliminary venture into understanding farmer behaviour and perceptions related to adaptation for global climate change variability. The findings of this study will be helpful for policy makers both in Cinzana commune and other regions of Mali in their interventions and actions to facilitate a shift to sustainable adaptation strategies. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the participant farmers from the study area for their kind assistance regarding data collection of this study. The paper is based on the first author’s Ph.D. thesis submitted to the Kwame University Nkrumah of Science and Technology (KNUST) Kumasi, Ghana. The Ph.D. programme was sponsored by the West African Science Service Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL). References ACCCA (Advancing Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation). (2010). Improving Decision Making Capacity Of Small Holder Farmers In Response To Climate Risk 29
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Adaptation In Three Drought Prone Districts Of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, Project No. 093. Acquah, H. D. (2011). Farmers’ Perception and Adaptation to Climate Change Effects: A Willingness to Pay. J. Sustain. Dev. Afr., 13, 150–161 Adejuwon, S. A. (2004). Impacts of Climate Variability and Climate Change on Crop Yield in Nigeria. Paper presented at the Stakeholders’ Workshop on Assessment of Impacts and Adaptation to Climate Change (AIACC), Conference centre, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, 271-279. Adesina, A. A., & Forson, J. B. (1995). Farmers' Perceptions and Adoption of New Agricultural Technology: Evidence from Analysis in Burkina Faso and Guinea, West Africa. Agricultural Economics, 13, 1–9. Adger, W. N., Huq, S., Brown, K., Conway, D., & Hulme, M. (2003). Adaptation to Climate Change in the Developing World. Progress in Development Studies, 3(3), 179-195. Akponikpè, P. B. I., Peter, J., & Agbossou, E. K. (2010). Farmers' Perception of Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Sub-Saharan West-Africa. 2nd International Conference: Climate, Sustainability and Development in Semi-Arid Regions, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil. Alexander, H. (2013). Asian Scientists: Mekong Region Facing Six Degrees Warming, Climate Extremes, USAID, New York. Apata, T. G., Samuel, K., & Adeola, A. (2009). Analysis of Climate Change Perception and Adaptation Among Arable Food Crop Farmers in South Western Nigeria, Contributed Paper Prepared for Presentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists, Beijing, China, August 16. Balme, M., Vischel, T., Lebel, T., Peugeot, C., & Galle, S. (2006). Assessing the Water Balance in the Sahel: Impact of Small Scale Rainfall Variability on Runoff: Part 1: Rainfall Variability Analysis. Journal of Hydrology, 331(1–2), 336-348. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-Efficacy Towards a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychol Rev, 191-215. Bardege, B., Neufeldt, H., Mowo, J., Abdelkadir, A., Muriuki, J., Delle, G., Tewodros, A.,Barry, S., Burton I., Richard, J. Klein, T., & Wandel. (2013). An Atomy of Adaptation to Climate Change and Vulnerability, Springs Berke F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management. Ecological Applications, 10, 1251-1262. http://dx.doi. org/10.1890/1051-0761 (2000)010[1251: ROTEKA] 2.0.CO.2 Butt, T. A., Mccarl B., A., Angerer J., Dyke, P. T., & Stuth, J. W. (2005). The Economic and Food Security Implications of Climate Change In Mali. Climatic Change, 68, 355-378. Butt, T. A., & Mccarl, K. (2006). Policies for Reducing Agricultural Sector Vulnerability to Climate ChangeiIn Mali, Climate Policy, 5, 583-598.
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Pearce, D., Cline, W., Achanta A, Fankhauser, S., Pachauri, R., To,l R., & Velling,a P., (1996). The Social Costs of Climate Change: Greenhouse Damage and Benefits of Control. In: Bruce J, Lee H, Haites E., Eds., Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Quay, W. (2008). Coping Mechanisms to Climate Variability in Ghana, African Journal of Agricultural Research, 3(5), 334-341 May, 2008. Quayum, M.A & Ali, A.M. (2012). Adoption and Diffusion of Power Tiller in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Agric. Res. 2012, 37, 307–325. Quisumbing, A., Haddad, L., & Peña, C. (1995). Gender and Poverty: New Evidence from 10 Developing Countries. FCND Discussion Paper No. 9, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C. Roncoli, C., Ingram, K., & Kirshen, P. (2001). The Costs and Risks of Coping with Drought: Livelihood Impacts and Farmers¹ Responses in Burkina Faso. Climate Research, 19(2), 119-132. Rosenzweig, C., & Parry, M. L. (1994). Potential Impact of Climate-Change on World Food Supply. Nature, 367, 133-138. Roudier, P., Sultan, B., Quirion, P., & Berg, A. (2011). The impact of future climate change on West African crop yields: What does the recent literature say? Global Environmental Change, 21(3), 1073 – 1083. ISSN 0959 3780 Sanfo, S., Lamber, J. P. A., MUELLER, M., & FONTA, W. (2014). Farmers´ Perceptions of Climate Change and Climate Variability Versus Climatic Evidence in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Conference: Climate Change in Africa. Negotiations, Translations, and Socio-Political Implications. 10th – 12th September 2014, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Bonn, Germany, at Bonn, Germany. Shackleton, S. E., & C. M. Shackleton. (2012). Linking Poverty, HIV/AIDS and Climate Change to Human and Ecosystem Vulnerability in Southern Africa: Consequences for Livelihoods and Sustainable Ecosystem Management. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 19, 275-286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509.20-11.641039. Sivakumar, M.V.K., Das, H.P. & Brunini, O. (2005). Impacts of Present and Future Climate Variability and Change On Agriculture and Forestry in The Arid and Semi-Arid Tropics Climatic Change, 70, 31-72. Sultan, B., Baron, C., Dingkuhn, M., Sarr, B. & Janicot, S. (2005). Agricultural impacts of large-scale variability of the West African monsoon. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 128(1–2), 93-110. Teklewold, H., Dadi L., Yami A., & Dana N. (2006). Determinants of Adoption of Poultry Technology: A Double hurdle Approach. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 18(3). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd18/3/tekl18040.htm. 34
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Artificial Inoculation of AM Fungi Improves Nutrient Uptake Efficiency in Salt Stressed Pea (Pissum Sativum L) Plants Eriola Meça Technology Transfer Center of Fushe Kruja, Fushe Kruje, Albania Glenda Sallaku Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania Astrit Balliu (corresponding author) Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
Received: May 12, 2016
Accepted: June 9, 2016
Published: June 11, 2016
doi:10.5296/jas.v4i3.9585
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jas.v4i3.9585
Abstract The study aimed to investigate the effects of commercially available AMF inoculate (Glomussp. mixture) on the growth and the nutrient acquisition of field pea (Pissum sativumL) plants. Inoculated (AMF+) and non-inoculated (AMF-) pea plants were subjected to two levels of salinity by the addition of sodium chlorate into the tap water (0 and 50mM NaCl). Several times during the growing cycle, in randomly selected plants the morphology of root system was analyzed and the dry matter of roots and the aboveground biomass were individually measured. Furthermore, plant tissue samples were analyzed regarding N, P and K concentration and the total uptake and specific absorption rate of these elements (SARN, SARP, SARK) per unit of root length, root surface area and root volume were calculated. Saline irrigation water strongly diminished the growth of pea plants and strongly reduced the absorption capacity of their root system. The inoculation of AM fungi in the growing substrate contributed to the increase of plant biomass and alleviation of the salinity stress by improving the specific absorption rate of main nutrient elements by the root system. Therefore, the artificial inoculation of AM fungi could be considered as an effective alternative to improve growth of pea plants under saline irrigation water conditions. Keywords: root length, root surface area, root morphology, specific absorption rate, nitrogen, 37
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phosphorous, potassium 1. Introduction Though pea (Pisum sativum L.) is grown essentially for its protein-rich seeds (Tayeh, Klein, et al., 2015), it is also an essential component of sustainable cropping systems, due to its ability to develop symbiotic nitrogen fixation as well as its role as a break crop for pest and pathogen reduction (Tayeh et al., 2015). Growing pea would improve soil quality by enhance the N-supplying power of soils, increase the soil reserves of organic matter, stimulate soil biological activity, improve soil structure, increase soil aeration, improve soil water-holding capacity and make the soil easier to till. Unfortunately, like most of legumes, pea is very sensitive to salinity (Egamberdieva et al. 2013). Plants growing in saline soils are subjected to the toxic effects of specific ions such as sodium and chloride, which disrupt the structure of enzymes and other macromolecules, damage cell organelles and disrupt photosynthesis and respiration. Soil salinity also induces a physiological drought in the plant and produces nutrient imbalance due to decreased nutrient uptake and/or transport to the shoot (Porcel et al., 2016). Apart from intrinsic protective systems, plants can overcome salinity effects by interacting with several beneficial soil microorganisms such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). This widespread coexistence of plants and fungi has important consequences for plant mineral nutrition, water acquisition, carbon allocation, tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses and interplant competition (Jansa et al., 2013).The improved salt tolerance of AM plants has been attributed to a more efficient uptake of nutrients, protection of enzyme activities, increase in photosynthesis ability, facilitation of water uptake by plants and mitigation of ionic imbalance (Porcel et al., 2016). Unfortunately, modern cultivation techniques have resulted in progressively reduced AM fungal diversity and frequency in agricultural soils and potting substrates, an effect that is believed to be related to tillage methods, the use of mineral fertilizers and nursery substrate sterilization among other factors (Nouriet al., 2014). Under these circumstances, the use of commercial inoculants containing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is quickly expanding, rewarded as an environmentally friendly technology which contributes to the alleviation of the negative effects of soil/irrigation water salinity. In line with the above considerations, the objective of this study was to assess the impact of AMF inoculants containing a mixture of AM fungi (G. intraradices, G. etunicatum, G. mosseae, G. geosporum, and G. clarum) on plant growth parameters and nutrient absorption capacity of field pea (Pissum sativum L) under normal and saline conditions. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Plant material and experimental conditions The experiment was conducted in a non heated greenhouse at Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania. For that purpose, graded seeds of a commercial pea cultivar (Progress 9) were sown in large plastic pots (0.6 m x 0.2 m x 0.2 m) filled either with i) 38
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vermiculite (Agra-Vermiculite, Pull Rhenen B.V., The Netherlands) + peat moss (Potground H) (vol:vol; 2:1) and 10% (vol/vol) crushed, expanded clay particles coated with AM-fungal spores (~200 spores g-1; mixture of Glomus intraradices, Glomus etunicatum, Glomus mosseae, Glomus geosporum, and Glomus clarum supplied by BioSym B.V. (Hengelo, Netherlands); AMF+, or ii) vermiculite + peat moss (2:1) with crushed, spore-free expanded clay particles (10% vol/vol); AMF-. The clay particles with / without AMF spores were homogenously mixed with the substrate before sowing. To each pot, 40 graded seeds, sown 2 cm apart from each other at 2 cm depth, in two parallel lines. The seeds were sown in December 10, 2014 and the experiment lasted till May 30, 2015. Two different levels of salt-stress (0 and 50 mM·NaCl) were established by the addition of different amounts of sodium chloride (NaCl) to the irrigation water. The non-inoculated (AMF–) and inoculated (AMF+) plants were equally distributed to both salinity treatments, according to a full factorial design. Consequently, four treatments, i.e., control (AMF−, no·NaCl), salt stress without mycorrhizal inoculation (AMF–, 50 mM·NaCl), mycorrhizal only (AMF+, no·NaCl), and salt stress with mycorrhizal inoculation (AMF+, 50 mM·NaCl) were established. Each treatment was represented by 7 pots placed in row alongside each other; each of them represented a replication. Plants were watered during the whole experimental period with equal amounts of either tap water (0 mMNaCl), or saline water (50 mMNaCl).The irrigation was conducted by a gravity driven drip irrigation system (2 drippers per pot, with 0.2 L hrs-1 discharge rate). For that purpose, individual 200 L deposits were placed over a 2 m high platform. The time, frequency and length of irrigation cycles were automatically controlled by an electronic irrigation controller (Itec 8, NetafimLtd, Israel). 2.2 Plant sampling and measurements At DAS (day after sowing) 18 and 42, ten plants of each treatment were randomly selected and harvested. The root system was gently washed free of adhering vermiculate particles, and scanned with an Epson Expression/STD 4800 Scanner. Subsequently, the acquired root images were analyzed with WinRHIZO Arabidopsis software (Regent Instruments Inc., Quebec, Canada), and the growth parameters of root system; root length (RL), root surface area (RSA), and root volume (RV) were measured and recorded. The plant organs were subsequently dried (65°C, 48 h) and dry matter of roots (DMRoot) and the aboveground biomass (DMShoot) were weighted separately to an accuracy of 0.001 g (TP 303; Denver Instruments GmbH, Göttingen, Germany). 2.3 Chemical analyses and nutrient uptake efficiency calculations The whole plant material (roots + shoots) was mixed together, grounded and analyzed for nutrient content(N, P, K), respectively at DAS18 and 42. Following that, the total uptake of each nutrient accumulated in the plant was calculated as the product of leaf dry matter and nutrient concentration(Amor & Marcelis, 2005)(Y. Huang et al., 2013), X accumulation (mg) = X concentration (mg g−1) × plant dry weight (g).
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and specific absorption rates (SAR) regarding root length, root surface area and root volume (g cm–1d–1, g cm–2d–1, g cm–2d–1) as indicators of root absorption efficiency were calculated according to the following formulae adopted from Amor & Marcelis (2005); (Xt2–Xt1 )/(t2 –t1 ) x (lnwt2 –lnwt2 )/(wt2 –wt1 ), where; X1 and X2 is plant nutrient content (mg) at the start and at the end of analyzed period, wt2 and wt1 are accordingly root length (RL), root surface area (RA) and root volume (RV) at the start and at the end of analyzed period, t1 = start of analyzed period (DAS 18), and t2 = end of analyzed period (DAS 42). 2.4 Statistics A ten replicate complete randomized factorial block design was used. Differences in DM, RL, RSA, RV and SAR were tested between by two way ANOVA, using the PC program StatPlus 2009 (AnalystSoft Inc., Walnut, CA, USA). Each significant ANOVA result (p< 0.05) was followed by Tukey-Kramer test at p
