Lessons from a decade of group support systems research

Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International

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Lessons from a Decade of Group Support Systems Research Jay F. Nunamaker, Jr. nunamakerQ bpa.arizona.edu

Daniel D. Mittleman dannyQarizona.edu

Robert 0. Briggs bbriggs@ bpa.arizona.edu Center for the Management of lnforma tion University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721

efforts, and by establishing and maintaining an alignment between personal and group goals. This paper presents a useful model for analyzing and comparing groupware technologies. It then summarizes the lessons learned during a decade of developing, testing, and using group support systems (GSS), one form of groupware.

Abstract A decade of research, development, and implementation of Group Support Systems has occasioned the learning of many lessons. This paper uses a heuristic model to compare group support systems to other groupware, and then summarizes many lessons learned about GSS in the laboratory and in the field.

1.1 Three productivity

1 Introduction A great deal of work gets done by individuals who set their jaws, put their shoulders to the wheel, and bear down. However, many problems organizations face cannot be solved by the rugged individualist becauseno one person has all the experience, all the resources, or all the information to accomplish such a task alone. And so teams form. Teams of people have successfully scaled seemingly insurmountable heights. But teamwork brings its own set of problems, All who have suffered the grinding drudgery of meetings-withoutend know how unproductive teamwork can be. Many things can go wrong with a meeting [20]. Participants may lack focus, or may have hidden agendas. Some people may be afraid to speak up, while others may dominate the discussion. Misunderstandings occur as people use the same words for different ideas and different words for the same ideas. Besides being difficult, meetings are expensive. A meeting between several managers or executivesmay cost upwards of $1000 per hour in salary costs alone. The 3M ManagementInstitute reports that in the United Statesalone there are more than 11 million formal meetingsper day, more than three billion meetings per year, consuming between 30-80% of a managersday. These numbers do not include informal discussions between colleagues in hallways and between offices. One Fortune 50 company reports losses in excessof $75 million per year due to poor meetings. For all their difficulty, meetings are still essential; for all their expense,they are not likely to go away. People must still collaborate to solve tough problems. Groupware is new breed of computer technology that targets the trouble spots for team productivity. Besides supporting information access,groupware can radically change the dynamics of group interactions by improving communication, by structuring and focusing problem solving

processes

Before discussing group support systems in detail, it will be useful to clarify their place within the wider domain of groupware, and to explain the diversity of contributions groupware can make in an organization. Toward that end, consider the Groupware Grid, which can serve as theory-based heuristic model for evaluating the contributions of groupware technology to team productivity (Figure 1). Figure 1. The Groupware Grid Comm

Deliberation

support

support

Info Access

support

Concerted Work Level Coordinated Work Level Individual Work Level

The horizontal axis of the Groupware grid derives from The Economics of Attention Management (TEAM)’ theory of group productivity [2] which assertsthat group membersdivide their limited attention resources among three cognitive processes: communication, deliberation, and information access. TEAM theory posits that these processesinterfere with on another, limiting group productivity. TEAM theory’s communication construct posits that people devote attention to choosing words, behaviors, images, and artifacts, and presenting them through a medium to other

’ TEAM theory originally appearedas Focus Theory. 418

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team members. TEAM’s deliberation construct asserts that people devote cognitive effort to forming intentions toward accomplishingthe goal. It includes the classicproblem-solving activities: Make senseof the problem, develop and evaluate alternatives,select and plan a courseof action, monitor results, etc. The information accessconstruct addressesthe attention demands of finding, storing, processing, and retrieving the information the group members need to support their deliberation. Information is knowledge that increases the expectedvalue of choosing one courseof action over another. It has value to the extent that it is available when a choice must be made, to the extent that it is accurate,and to the extent that it is complete. However the value information s offset by the cost of acquiring, storing, processing, and retrieving it. TEAM theory also posits that the cognitive effort required for communication, deliberation, and information access is motivated by goal congruence- the degreeto which the vested interestsof individual team members are compatible with the group goal. Team members whose interests are aligned with the group’s will exert more effort to achievethe goal than those whose interests are not served by the group goal. The groupware grid does not address goal congruence, rather, it addressesthe potential for technology to reduce the cognitive costs of joint effort. Groups may become less productive if the attention demands for communication, deliberation, or information accessbecometoo high. Groupware can improve productivity to the degree that it reduces the attention costs of these three processes. The Groupware Grid crossesthe three processeswith the three modes of group effort (Figure 2). As in a 100 meter dash, some team outcomes are the sum of uncoordinated individual efforts. Other team efforts, as in a relay race, require careful coordination betweenotherwise independentindividual efforts. Some team tasks, as in a rowing race, require continuous concerted effort from all participants. One can map the contributions of a single groupware tool or an entire environment into the cells of the grid. A given technology will probably provide support in more than one cell of the Grid. One can comparethe potential for productivity of different environmentsby comparing their respectivegrids For instance, a group support system offers a great deal of support for communication, deliberation, and information access at the Concerted Work level, but offer little support for the Coordinated Work Level. A group support system (GSS) is a computer -based environment to support concerted and coordinated effort for joint problem solving and task completion. Participants type their contributions into computer workstations. The system immediately makes all contributions available to other participants on their workstations. Each software tool in an GSS supports group dynamics in some unique way. A

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brainstorming tool, for example, prevents a group from thinking deeply, while encouraging them to diverge from familiar thinking patterns. An idea organizer, on the other hand, encourages a divergent group to focus quickly on a narrow set of key issues. Other tools might include electronic polling and voting, multi-criteria evaluation, team outlining and writing, and shareddrawing tools, to name but a few. A team databaselike Lotus Notes offers little support at the Concerted Work level but offers strong support for communication and information access at the Coordination Level. A team databaseoffers little deliberation support at the Coordination Level, but a workflow automation system offers strong deliberation at the coordination level. An electronically supported work environment that included group support systems, workflow automation, and a team database would support communication,thought, and information processesat the Concerted Work and Coordinated Work Levels. Figure 2. Three Levels of Group Work

sFp Sprinters

Individual Work Level: Uncoordinated Individual Effort

Coordinated Work Level: Relay

Coordinated-But-Independent

Concerted WorkLevel: Concerted Effort

2 Lessons From the field The lessons presented in this paper derive from the experience of taking GroupSystemsout of the laboratory and into the field. Researchershave learned a great deal about electronic support for team work: what features and functions are important, how to wield the tools effectively, and what kinds of results are possible. Perhaps the best place to begin a discussion of lessons learned is with the bottom-line results from GSS use, because without the bottom-line benefits the other lessonsare of little interest. 2.1 The bottom-line

benefits of face-to-face meetings

Early GSS researchat IBM, Boeing, Bellcore, and other organizations tracked hundreds of teams in year-long case studies[6, 16,221. Teams using GSS reducedtheir labor costs an average of 50% and reduced the number of calendar days from the beginning to the end of me project an averageof 90%.

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The U.S. Army reported a total savings of $1 million in eight I-week sessions to design a new Army-wide personnel tracking system. BellCore found a 66% reduction in labor costs for teams using the technology. The Army National Guard saved over 70% in labor costs and 90% in project elapsed time over three documentation projects. Table 1. Key Lessons about Bottom Line Benefits 0 Average reduction of project calendar days: 90%. l Average labor cost reduction: 50-70%. l Improved decision quality. l Savings from improved buy-in to the decision.

An important lesson learned during the Boeing case is that productivity is not always enough. For instance, a large manufacturerreported an ROI of more than 600% on their GSS installation, but key stakeholders objected to the changes in work patterns s*rrounding the new system, and so its use was discontinued. The use of group support systems may increase the likelihood that participants will buy in to the final results of the group effort. For example, a task force in a large bureaucratic organization tried for over a year to draft a document detailing acceptablefield procedures. In that time they were not able to persuade both the field experts and the central administration to accept the same draft of the document, despite a long series of meetings. A team of field experts and the administrators came to an GSS facility for another try. Using anonymous brainstorming, group writing, and electronic voting tools the group quickly identified the key issues standing in the way of resolving the disputes. Within three days the group had negotiated their differences and rewritten the bulk of the document. The revised document was accepted and used thereafter by both sides. Because all parties worked simultaneously, a unified shared vision emerged, and key constraints from both sides could be incorporated into the document. Both sides bought in and championed the final draft back to the rest of the organization. 2.2 GSS lessons on leaders and leadership style

Leader characteristicsrange from democratic to autocratic; situations, from chaotic to static; and organizational cultures, from fragmented to cohesive. A group support system does not replace leadership, nor does it enforce a particular leadership style. Rather, it enhancesa leader’s ability to move a group forward.

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2.2.1 The Democracy Paradox. Teams made up of experts of expert peers often call for democratic leadership to coordinate communication, facilitate the group process, and make sure resources are available. However, democratic processescan bog down decision making in endless meetings, conflicting proposals, and narrow interests. When crises arise in quick succession,a strong, autocratic leader is often needed to make rapid decisions. A centralized approach is not practical for most ad hoc teams, however, and therein lies the rub. Group support systems make it possible to involve more people in arriving at decisions while ensuring that decisions are timely. Larger group size helps to keep the big picture in focus and eliminates a group leader’sneed to communicate separately with smaller subgroups. Because all subgroups can be represented at an electronic meeting, all perspectives may be heard without jeopardizing the speedy response necessaryin a crisis. As the group builds an understanding of problems and tasks, there is less wheel spinning, more cooperation, less chaos, and more acceptanceof decisions. It is also possible to use an GSS to permit experts from different geographic locations to participate in a discussion on a few minutes’ notice. However, there is still much to be learned about how to manage distributed collaboration Table 2. Key Lessons About Group Leadership . Technology does not replace leadership. l Technology can support any leadership style. l Some resist GSS because it requires different leadership skills l There is a need to develop group incentives. l Be willing to accept criticism of you and the organization. l Make sure there is an individual incentive to contribute to the group effort.

successfully. Presently it is far easier to receive advice from a distance than to complete full projects without ever working face-to-face. 2.2.2 Leadership Pitfalls. Failure to make a meeting’s objectives explicit can lead to disenchantment, particularly when participants spot phony democracy. If a leader “includes” a group in the decision-making process after the fact simply to “let them feel ownership,” the group process breaks down. Leaders who merely want a team to understand a problem before they propose a solution should say so up front. If the objective is to develop a set of alternatives and recommendations,it should be so defined. Once the team has been commissioned to make a decision, however, a leader can contribute, advise, and argue, but the team will rebel against a leader who overrides its collective judgment, and the anonymous, parallel corntnunication of GSS will enable the revolt.

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False promises of anonymity are equally damaging. Any attempt to find out who said what in an anonymous session undermines the leader’s credibility and defeats the purpose of anonymous input, which is to solicit risky, unpopular, or opposing viewpoints. It is interesting to note that people often try to guess who said what in an anonymous session. Indeed, they are sometimes quite sure. Experience has shown, however, that such guessesare most often incorrect. Table 3. Lessons about GSS Application Software

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subtle difference in user interfaces make large differences in group dynamics*. For instance, an idea generation tool with a five line limit per comment submission encourages concise expression of many ideas. On the other hand, an idea generation tool that permits long comments about few issues will encouragedetailed exploration. Because interface choices affect group dynamics, and because group dynamics are a critical concern for group productivity, it is useful to build separate or variable interfaces, each to support a particular dynamic. 2.3.2 Simple interfaces are vital. It is far more important for group tools than for individual tools that the interface be kept very simple. Group members face many demands on their attention: Talking, listening, thinking, remembering, etc. If, the computer interface poses additional distraction it will hurt rather than help group productivity. It is important to design interfaces that are so obvious that the user has no question about what the group is doing and how it is to be done. The screen should display only what the user needs for the task at hand, nothing more. In the GSS development effort we attempted to createtools that would permit groups to begin productive work with less than 30 seconds of instructions. Users are often able to begin work with no instructions at all.

interface choices affect group dynamics. Separate special purpose modules permit flexible process design. l Group support must integrate with individual desktop application. 0. Simplify the interface. No more than 30 seconds of instructions. It can never be too easy to use. l The user interface must flow seamlessly from tool to tool. 9 Data must move from module to module seamlessly. l Groupware has many more ways to go wrong, and a higher failure cost than individual software. l Users must have ready access to external data and past session transcripts. l l

Any tool is only as good as the artisan who wields it. This is just as true of sophisticatedgroup decision support software as of a screwdriver. To realize these systems’enormous potential to expand the productivity of today’s team-oriented organizations, leaders must recognize both tangible and intangible benefits. The intangibles, which depend heavily on the style and quality of leadership, include greater group cohesiveness, better problem definition, a wider range of higher quality solutions, and stronger commitment to those solutions. The tangibles, already demonstrated, are dollar savings through greaterproductivity and reduced staff hours to reach decisions. On the bottom line, more time is free from the demands of frequent -- and often frustrating -- meetings. 2.3 Lessons about GSS application

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2.3.3 Process templates. Because many group problemsolving efforts will involve similarly structured efforts, it is very useful to build an GSS environment that can provide templates for sequences of activities. For example, many groups follow a brainstorm-organize-vote-explore-votepattern. Another common sequence is generate-solutions, generatecriterion, evaluate- solutions, select -solution. Templates for particular methods, --like Delphi, or TQM -- may also be useful. Having a set of standard templates for processescan make it easier for a group to decide what tools to use and what processesto follow. There are two forms a template can take. First, it can supply a pattern for deciding which tools will be used in what order in conjunction with what group processes. Second,it can design a structure determining which features of a particular tool will be enabled during a given process. Both process-level and tool-level templates permit a leader to quickly adapt the GSS to team goals. 2.4 Lessons About group participation

Through six generationsof GroupSystemsdevelopmentwe have learned a number of lessons about what is important for successful GSS software in terms of structure, use, and interface.

GSS users tend to contribute much more fully and equally than do par&pants in traditional meetings [3]. Because ideas enter the system and are circulated without attribution, An GSS

2.3.1 Interfaces affect group dynamics. It turns out to be very useful to build GSS software with a variety of interface options. It would be possible to build a single tool with a single interface to support idea generation, idea organization, idea evaluation (voting), and idea exploration. However,

2 Indeed, in one case the addition of a single horizontal line across the middle of a screen produced a 63% increase in brainstorming productivity [ 181.

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2.4.1 Dealing with criticism. When they first hear about anonymous input some people express concern that the discussion will quickly degenerate into “flaming” sessions where participants launch vitriolic personal invectives laced with four-letter words and slanderous epithets. While this has Rappenedwith studentsin classrooms and laboratories, in tens of thousands of sessions in business and government organizations, we have not seen a single such disintegration. This does not mean that people are not critical in electronic meetings. They are. Participants will often raise issues that would never come out in face-to-face discussions. There appears to be less sting in an anonymous electronic criticism than in a direct rebuke during a face-to-face meeting. The screenbuffers the negative emotions that may accompany such criticism. Because nobody know where a particular idea came from people criticize the idea rather than the person who presented it. Anonymity may also encourage group members to view their ideas more objectively and to see criticism as a signal to suggest other ideas. Despite the safe haven it provides for most participants, SS isn’t always so comfortable for the leader of a project or Table 4. Key Lessons for Outstanding Participation

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enterprise. Sometimes it takes courage for a manager to deal with the issuesthat surface in an anonymousmeeting. It’s hard to learn to deal with unpleasantinput, but if problems lie buried for too long, they may become intractable.

frees people to spark ideas off one another or to criticize ideas witbout fear of rebuke from peers or superiors. It encourages people to participate in meetings without inhibition and reduces the tendency for a few to dominate a meeting. A manager at one high-tech company observed, “People who are usually reluctant to expressthemselvesfeel free to take part, and we’ve been surprisedby the number of new ideas generated. We also reach conclusions far more rapidly.”

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Anonymity will increase the amount of key comments contributed. Parallel nature of the interaction increases participation. Participants sense they are part of the plan, that they are moving towards consensus and resolution. Good ideas are a function of the quantity of ideas generated. Adding participants to an GSS meeting almost always improves the outcomes. When participants anonymously criticize ideas, performance improves. It keeps the group searching for better answers. Any idea may inspire a completely new idea that would not have otherwise occurred. Develop activities which encourage frequent generation of new ideas. Provide feedback to groups to let them know how each activity they undertake maps to the entire agenda. Groups stay better focused if they understand how what they are doing ties to the big picture. In face-to-face groups peer pressure keeps people moving. Distributed groups tend to lose momentum.

In a rare incident, the founder of a very successfulmedical technology firm called together key personnel from multiple levels in the organization for an GSS session. Thirty minutes into the meeting he turned red in the face and stood up. Pounding a fist on his PC for emphasis, he shouted, “I want to know who put in the comment on the problem with the interface for the new system. We’re not leaving this room until I know who made that statement.” He glared around the room waiting for a response. Everyone greeted his outburst with silence. After a weeks reflection he returned sheepishly to the group and said, “I had no idea there was trouble. I guess I’m more out of touch than I ought to be. Let’s try again.” 2.4.2 Diminishing dysfunctional politics. Anonymity helps to separate ideas from the politics behind them. Ideas can be weighted on their merits rather than on their source. Each member of a team tends to view problems from his or her own perspective, often to the detriment of the project or enterprise. For example, in traditional meetings engineers see engineering solutions, sales people see marketing solutions, and production people see manufacturing solutions. In discussion and exchange of ideas anonymously from many different viewpoints, the big picture is more likely to emerge. GSS groups often achieve a unified, shared vision of problems and solutions -- something that’s difficult with traditional meeting methods. A striking example of the use of GSS to overcome political difficulties occurred in Slovenia, formerly part of Yugoslavia, shortly after the fall of the Iron Curtain. The newly-elected president and his cabinet faced the task of re-designing their economy from scratch. By using anonymous electronic brainstorming they were able to separate ideas from old political rivalries, and argue the merits of each suggestion purely on its content. Slovenia now has a thriving and growing economy. Group support systems can translate negative comments into a positive influence on group productivity 141. Groups that are only allowed to make positive comments tend to stop looking for solutions when they have identified only a few. After all, everyone seems to like the ideas that have already been generated. On the other hand, when people are allowed to anonymously criticize anonymous ideas, people are not so sure they’ve found the best answer right off the bat. They continue to search for solutions until they have exhausted the possibilities.

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Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International 2.5 Lessons about electronic polling

In most caseselectronic polling tools play a very different role from those of conventional voice or paper-ballot methods. Traditional voting usually happens at the end of a discussion, to close and decide a matter. Electronic polling tends to inspire a “vote early, vote often” approach.Becauseit is so fast, teams use electronic voting to measure consensus and focus subsequentdiscussion,rather than to close debate.While it can shorten discussions, saving time is not the only reason to use electronic polling tools. Teams find that polling clarifies communication, focuses discussion, reveals patterns of consensus,and stimulates thinking. Table 5. LessonsaboutElectronicVoting Voting clarifies communication, focuses discussion reveals patterns of consensus and stimulates thinking. l Anonymous polling can surface issues that remain buried during direct conversation. l Voting can demonstrate areas of agreement allowing the group to close off discussion in those areas and focus only on areas of disagreement. * Eiectronic polling can facilitate decisions that are too painful to face using traditional methods. e Care must be taken to ensure that voting criteria are c learly established and defined. l

2.5.1 Getting past violent agreement. Sometimes members of a team will vigorously debate issues upon which they actually agree.A startling example of this phenomenon of unneeded debate occurred in a health care organization that encompassed a dozen hospitals throughout a major metropolitan area. Three interest groups -- doctors, administrators, and directors -- set out to define a mission statementand to decide how various special services should be distributed among the hospitals. For reasonsthat were unclear, the processdegeneratedinto an acrimonious battle -- at which point someone noted that it had been three years since the groups had met without their attorneys being present. The groups decided to perform an experiment. Approximately 200 people attended a meeting where every participant was given a hand-held, radio-linked voting box. Using a large public screen,a facilitator displayed a number of policy statementssuch as, “When patients need emergencycare it shall be given without reservation, without reservation, regardlessof ability to pay.” Participants voted by agreeing or disagreeing with each statement as it was displayed. Prior to the meeting, it was assumedthroughout the health care organization that doctors, as a group, were responsible for obstructing agreement and thus progress. The prevailing wisdom was that hospital administrators and directors were the peacemakersin the group, and that a good deal of their energy went into persuadingthe physicians to be less intractable. This assumptionwas destroyedby the results. Analysis of the votes

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by subgroups revealed that, contrary to everyone’s expectations, doctors and directors were in nearly perfect agreement on every issue. It was actually the staff administrators who were out of step, although for three years the administratorshad been telling the directors that the doctors were causing problems. 2.52 Polling to surface information. Sometimespeople do not think to share critical information until they are puzzling over the spread of electronic votes. Traditional methods of measuring consensus that do not reveal group thinking patterns can prove costly. The head of a mining company used a computerized voting system for the highly charged political task of allocating a budget across multiple corporate sites and projects. He asked a number of key executives for their opinions, but the results of the first poll were widely scattered. No one seemed to agree on budget priorities. The presidentpressedhis executivesin order to understand why their voting patterns were so dissimilar, given that they all presumably had the good of the corporation in mind. finally, one vice president ventured, “None of us really knows what goes on at all these places. We can’t really make an informed recommendation.” The president then arranged to have electronic comment cards included on the ballot, and advised the group, “If you know about a project, type in what you know. If you don’t know, read what the others have typed.” Within half an hour, the group had exchangeda great deal of information about the various projects and sites, and the subsequentvote-and-discuss cycle resulted in high consensuson the budget allocation. As the team left the room, one of the vice presidents pointed at an item on the bottom of the budget priority list, and commentedruefully, “We dumped $5 million dollars into that turkey last year.” Traditional consensusbuilding had failed to uncover people’s doubts, whereas electronic polling had revealed people’s true feelings about the project.

2.5.3 No more Mr. Nice Guy. Electronic polling can sometimes facilitate decisions that are too painful to arrive at using traditional methods. A corporation with a particularly difficult budget crunch chose to use an electronic polling systemto help decide how best to downsize. In many previous meetings, the possibility of eliminating a large but ineffective division was raised but was set aside for fear of offending the division’s head, who was a very personable and effective lobbyist for his employees. Although the division was generally unproductive, no one wanted to publicly push to have the division eliminated. The group decided that across-theboard cuts should be implemented. Everyone would bleed a little, sacrificing some efficiency in the interests of harmony. When the electronic votes were tallied, however, it was clear to all involved that the most sensible and most widely supported alternative was to eliminate the ineffective division.

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be successful, but there are some fundamental design considerations that can enhancethe use of the technology.

In doing so the organization did not have to make potentially crippling cuts to mission-critical functions, and at the same time it distributed responsibility for the decision among the participants. 2.54 Limits on electronic polling. Not all electronic polling sessions are successful. Occasionally, when all the votes are in, all the terms are defined, key information has been shared,and the hidden assumptions have surfaced, it turns out there are fundamental and irreconcilable disagreements between parties. For example, A savings and loan company faced a crisis that threatenedits survival. During most of the discussion people were optimistic that they would reach a consensusand proceed accordingly. Rather than converging, however, group members views diverged as electronic voting proceeded. An analysis revealed that the group was, in fact, made up of several factions with mutually exclusive, deeply held positions. The sessioncame to an end with an agreement to disagree. The only thing the participants knew was that in light of the bitter disagreements they had uncovered, the viability of the current management team, and thus the company, was at stake. On the bright side, the team was now focused on the difficult problem, rather than wasting time squabbling about minor disagreements. In addition to making face-to-face meetings more productive, electronic voting plays a critical role in supporting geographically dispersed meetings. Remote meeting participants lack such nonverbal cues as shifting gazes, body positions, and gestures that let speakers sense it’s time for a discussion to move on. Although many teams savetime and money with electronic polling, it would be a mistake to view that as the technology’s main advantage. Some groups spend more time on their deliberations when using electronic polling than with traditional methods. Research has shown that groups using structured voting schemes and response analyses to clarify communication and focus discussionconsistently reach higherquality decisions than groups using traditional voting methods [ 11. Electronic tools that permit any participant to change his or her vote at any time and provide a real-time display of group voting patterns, establish a different dynamic by indicating shifts in consensus.New network-basedvoting schemespermit a group to begin interacting long before participants arrive in the meeting room, and to extend interaction after the face-toface meeting is over. 2.6 Lessons about the GSS facilities and room design

When large groups work face-to-face the design of the physical spacein which they work can contribute substantially to the successof the group [ 12, 14, 171. GSS facilities range from the basic to the sophisticated,from the inexpensive to the costly. An electronic meeting room need not be expensive to

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2.6.1 The public screen. Most GSS facilities include one or more public screens. A public screen is a way to give the group a common focal point, as well as a way to share public information. [9]. When more than one screen is available, facilitators use the second screen to support electronic slide shows, provide a group view of a participant screen, display information from two GSS tools, or present a public view of an external document. Multiple public screensmay also serve to improve viewing angles and distance for meeting participants. 2.6.2 Lighting is critical. The quantity and quality of lighting significantly impact both performance and satisfaction of workers [7, 21, 231. The introduction of computer technology complicates the delivery of appropriate lighting. [8, 151 It is difficult to strike a balance between adequate lighting and the need to view a public screen . Standard office and conference space buildouts often use only fluorescent lighting, which washesout a projected display. The variety of tasks which occur during group support systems sessions require multiple coordinated lighting systems in the room. There are several decisions meeting room designers can make to provide for better lighting: e Use indirect rather than direct systems to minimize glare; c Provide individual task lights with parabolic louvers; c Use dark matte surfaces on counter tops to reduce glare; . Provide rheostat controls for variable dimming; . Provide easy-to-usepresets for the meeting leader. 2.6.3 Seating configuration. The first GSS facilities arranged participants in a horseshoe. This allows for the participants to have reasonably good line of sight to other participants as well as to the public display screen at the open end of the horseshoe. It also allows the facilitator to step into the middle of the horseshoeto gain the attention of the group. Several other configuration have been systematically tested in other classroom and GSS facilities with varying results [9, 10, 191. Some facilities have been built in a simple conference table arrangement with the public display at one end of the table. This focuses group attention quite well, but does not allow for very large groups. Other facilities have made use of a round table with participants on every side. Again this focusesgroup attention well, but requires some participants to sit with their backs to the public screen. Still other facilities have been designedas tiered auditoria. These facilities provide excellent focus on a public screen, but it can be difficult for participants to pick up non-verbal cues from other participants. All seating configurations result in trade-offs [5, 151. It is important to consider the primary purposes of the facility and to decide the relative importance of group focus, public display screen accessand support for large group size.

Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International 2.6.3 Lines of sight and the work surface. Some consideration must be given to the configuration of the work surface that will be made available to the participants. They must be able to see their computer screen clearly, and they must also be able to see one another clearly. Some electronic meeting rooms have the CPUs sitting on desktops, and the monitors sitting on the CPUs resulting in a “Kilroy” effect. People strain to see over and around the technology. In this setting people tend not to engage in the proceedings; they lose interest and participation drops. Ideally monitors can be partially recessedinto the desktop so people have clear linesof-site to one another. Some room designers have completely buried the monitors under a glass panel in the desktop, completely uncluttering the surface. This approach turns out to be a mixed blessing becauselights and windows create glare on the glass. Table 6. Lessons about Electronic Meeting Facilities

Lighting issues are extremely important and a common source of error in room design. l Public screen is important for focusing group attention. l Sufficient desktop space allows for spreading papers and affords visual privacy for participant work screens. l Provide space for social interactions (eating, chatting). l Map seating configuration to expected group activities. 0 Minimize background noise. l Provide facilitator with easy access to all room systems. l Select room appointments to match with the type of group expected to use the room. l Be sure people can see one another in the room. Partially or fully recess monitors into tables if necessary. l Provide back-up systems for sewers, workstations, etc. l

It can also be difficult to keep the monitor viewing area free of papers and clutter during the meeting. The partially-embedded monitor turns out to be a good compromise [ 111. Along with space for the monitor, the work area must provide room for participants to spread out at least two fullsized legal sheets of paper. Participants often need to work from documents while interacting in an electronic meeting room. And by adequately spacing monitors apart each participant is afforded a small amount of visual privacy so that participants are less likely to anonymouscontributions typed in by other participants. 2.6.4 Social space. It is important to provide social space along with the work space in an electronic meeting environment [12, 151. The social space should allow for serving of snacksand drinks, and should have ample room for casualconversation. Breaks and informal interactions are used as a core component of the meeting processitself. A great deal of important activity can happen during breaks. Besides clarifying positions and informally negotiating agreements, people build a rapport with one another that simply cannot be

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achieved during the computer-supported interactions. Facilitators sometimes schedule breaks to allow for informal conversationand for coalition building. One facility at Arizona supports this sort of informal communication by the placement of an outdoor fountain just outside the meeting room. The running water provides a white noise which ensuresacoustical privacy for small groups engaging in conversation or negotiation during breaks [ 131. 2.7 Lessons from the facilitators

and session leaders

The person who chairs an electronic meeting is the leader or facilitator. This person may be the group leader, another group member, or a separate,neutral individual who is not a group member. Using a non-member enables all group membersto participate actively rather than having to lose one member to serve as the chair. A non-membercan be a specialist in GSS and group work, but may lack the task and group knowledge of a regular member. The meeting leader/facilitator provides four functions. First this person provides technical support by initiating and terminating specific software tools and functions, and guiding the group through the technical aspectsnecessaryto work on the task. This reducesthe amount of training required of group members by removing one level of system complexity. In some cases technical ‘support is provided by an additional technical facilitator or technographer. Second,the meeting leader/facilitator chairs the meeting, maintains the agenda, and assessesthe need for agenda changes. The leader may or may not take an active role in the meeting to improve group interaction by, for example, providing processstructure in coordinating verbal discussions. This person also administersthe group’s knowledge. In an GSS designed without support for meeting leaders/facilitators, any group member may change or delete the group memory. When disagreements occur, members’competition for control can create a dysfunction. While this is manageable for small collaborat&e groups, it is much less so for larger groups witl 1 Table 7. Key Lessons From Facilitators and Session Leaders Pre-planning is critical. D Find a fast, clean way to do idea organization -- people hate it and you will lose them if you take too long. l The group must always see where they are headed and how each activity advances them towards the goal. . Be cognizant of non-verbal interactions. Even small nonverbal cues can tell a facilitator a lot. . Expect that the plan and the agenda will change. l Group dynamics can be affected by the selection of switches in the GSS tools. l

diverse membership, where competitive political motives and vested interestsexist. With GSS, memberscan view the group memory and add to it at their own workstations,

but in general

only the meeting leader/facilitator can modify and delete public information.

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Third, the meeting leader/facilitator assists in agenda planning by working with the group and/or group leader to highlight the principal meeting objectives and develop an agenda to accomplish them. Specific GSS tools are then mapped to each activity. Finally, in an on-going organizational setting where the meeting leaders/facilitators are not group members, the sessionleader provides organizational continuity by setting standards for use, developing training materials, maintaining the system,and acting as champion/sponsor,which is key to successful technology transfer. The roles of the meeting leader /facilitator may also change over time. For example, after a group has some experience using GSS, the need for technical support and agenda planning advice may decrease. 2.7.1 R-e-plan the agenda carefully. The most basic principle for successfuluse of group support systemsis that the activities must be explicitly planned in advance. The task must be obvious to the group, and the activity in which its members are engaging must obviously advance them toward accomplishing that task. Where a conventional meeting may wander for three or four hours before people realize it is off track, with a computer-based meeting can resemble a train wreck in about ten minutes if it is not well planned. If the participants feel that the technology is engaging them in irrelevant activities they will often grow hostile and refuse to continue. The importance of preplanning cannot be overemphasized. Before an electronic session, the session leader must define exactly what concrete deliverables the group will create -- be it a problem statement, a list of possible solutions, a documenteddecision, a plan of action, or whatever. Defining a deliverable can in itself be a difficult task, but without it an electronic meeting is likely to founder. Having defined a deliverable, the meeting leader must then decide on a process for achieving the deliverable. This requires an awarenessof the electronic tools and the different dynamics each can produce. Having mapped out a process for achieving the goal, the leader must also be sure that appropriate people are included in the meeting. Any group with a stake in the outcomes can and should be represented. With electronic meetings this is much more feasible than with conventional meetings, becauseelectronic meetings can include may more people without hampering group productivity. 2.7.2 Design of Participant Interactions. The facilitator can affect me amount of online discussion among participants with subtle verbal cues and with switch selection choices in the GSS software. For example, if the facilitator wants participants to respond to one another then s/he can select for the GSS discussion tools to number all participant comments and s/he can provide verbal instructions to the group as to how easy it is to respond to a comment simply by referring to its number. On the other hand, if the facilitator wishes participants to focus

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attention at developing already present ideas and wishes to discouragecross discussion, s/he can turn comment numbering. 2.7.3 Verbal communication. Even though much of the group discussion takes place online during an GSS session, verbal communication can have a huge impact on the results of a session. For example, one cue a facilitator uses to determine whether a group is anxious or bored is the amount of humor present in online comments. When a group is focused on the topic at hand, there will be only a moderate amount of humor embedded in the conversation. Once the level of humor noticeably increasesthe group is ready to move on. Facilitator cues can have a large impact on group performance as well. One recent experiment found that the facilitator could boost group performance in an idea generation task an average of 30 percent simply by changing two phrase in the instructions to the participants. Performance increased if the facilitator adopted a jocular tone and urged the participants to ‘kick butt” rather than to “try,” and suggested the participants would be “brain-dead” instead of “below average”should their performance flag. This small example illustrates a key point: Electronic meeting tools, like the tools of a craftsman, must be used with skill and understanding. The successof the technology depends both on the quality of the system and the quality of the processesin which it is used.

3 Conclusions We have learned a great deal about how to engage in successful electronically supported collaboration, and we still have a great deal to learn. The field is growing rapidly in many different directions. Looking back ten years from now today’s technology may seem horse-and- buggy. Nonetheless, the fundamental principals of collaboration technology will still apply. There will still be problems so intractable that no single person will be able to solve them. Technology will still improve communication, structure and support deliberation, and provide accessto information. And technology will still be no substitute for leadership.

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