MARRIAGE AS A SURVIVAL STRATEGY

4


1



[Type the company name]
[Type the document title]
[Type the document subtitle]
[Type the author name]
[Pick the date]
research
TOPIC: MARRIAGE AS A SURVIVAL STRATEGY
The Case of Young Women in Overspill, Epworth.

SANDRA VUNGANAI
12/13/2013


The study has been undertaken to assess the issue of marriage as a survival strategy for young women in Epworth, Harare. The study commenced according to the objectives of the researcher. The researcher wanted to understand the survival tactics for young urban women in the face of the economic challenges being faced in the country. The researcher also wanted to understand why women choose to stay in abusive relationships at the same time examining factors that are leading to the rise of domestic violence in society. These were the central issues that the study was looking at. The research employed qualitative techniques for collecting data. The field data collection was carried out through administering interviews to the 30 participants, the participants were selected using purposive sampling technique. The researcher used the post colonial feminist theory which seeks to account for the way that racism and the long lasting political, economic and cultural effects of colonialism affects non- white, non- western women in the post-colonial world. The research also highlighted in its findings the lack of continuity in programs and initiatives of NGOs who advocate for the emancipation of women as another leading factor of women resorting to marriage as a survival strategy.



Table of Contents
BACKGROUND 4
1.2: Statement of the problem 5
1.3: Aim of the research 5
1.4: Objectives 5
1.5: Research questions 5
1.6: Assumptions 5
1.7: Significance of the study 5
1.8: Limitations of the study 5
1.9: De – limitations of the study 5
1.10: Definition of terms 5
1.10:1 Marriage as an institution 5
1.10.2: Patriarchy 5
1.10.3: Religion and Marriage 5
1.10.4: Culture and Marriage 5
1.10.5: Society and Marriage 5
1.10.6: Socio – Economic challenges in Zimbabwe 5
1.11: Feasibility of the study 5
1.12: Summary of the chapter 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2: Theoretical Framework 5
2.2.1: Marriage as a social norm 5
2.3 Post – Colonial Feminist Theory 5
2.4: Marriage in Africa 5
2.5: Diverging marriage practices in Asia 5
2.6: Marriage in Zimbabwe 5
2.7: Sexual Cultures in Epworth 5
2.8: Homelessness 5
2.9: Summary 5
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 5
3.1: Introduction 5
3.2: Research Design 5
3.3: Study Population 5
3.4: Sample and Sampling Procedures 5
3.5: Research Instruments 5
3.5.1 Questionnaires 5
3.5.2: In-depth Interviews 5
3.6: Data Presentation and Discussion Procedures 5
3.7: Ethical Considerations 5
3.8: Informed consent 5
3.9: Confidentiality and privacy 5
3.10: Right to withdraw 5
3.11: Summary 5
CHAPTER FOUR 5
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 5
4.1: Introduction 5
4.2: Presentation of research findings 5
4.2.1: Survival tactics of young urban women in Epworth. 5
4.2.2: Why do women choose to stay in abusive relationships 5
4.2.3: Factors leading to the rise of domestic violence 5
4.3 Discussion of research findings 5
4.3.1: Perceptions of the young women towards marriage 5
4.3.2: Marriage as a survival strategy 5
4.3.3 Women as the second sex 5
4.3.4 Domestic violence and its impact on women 5
4.3.5: Legislative deficiencies in relation to the protection of women in marriages 5
4.3.6: Religion as a psychological oppressor of women 5
4.4: Summary 5
CHAPTER FIVE : CONCLUSION 5
5.1: Summary 5
5.2: Conclusion 5
5.3: Recommendations 5
5.4: Summary 5
REFERENCES 5


CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

The backdrop of this paper is hinged on the fact that marital hope or a marital setup remains as a survival option for some female family heads in Epworth, contrary to the general thrust of most feminist writers who stress that there is a negative relationship between women and marriage. This study highlighted how women were assimilated into early societies, drawing from these experiences the study further looked into these ancient practices and compared them with theories that have been conducted in regards to women and survival. The researcher drew her line of thought from these previous researches in contrast with her own findings.
BACKGROUND

Multiple partner relationships, underscored by gifts, can be a key survival strategy for many poor women Obbo (1995). Often driven by poverty and the desire for a better life, many women and girls find themselves using sex as a commodity in exchange for goods, services, money, accommodation or other basic necessities. These are not women you will find along major highways in the wee hours of the night soliciting for 'customers'; however these are women you will see in a marriage setup with a husband and children. Men are usually in it for sex whilst women are in it for the sake of survival. But what are the implications of such a union? One might ask. With the recent surge in numbers of women being mutilated, maimed, humiliated and at times killed, one tends to wonder why women place themselves as bait to domestic violence as a result of these toxic unions.This study is premised on the view that urban survival strategies adopted by poor women are complex, dynamic and multiple. As Chant (1996) observes, in addition to income generating strategies, survival strategies also refer to people's daily reproductive activities, which encompass Moser's (1989) triple roles of women, namely, the productive, reproductive, and social reproduction or community roles. Similarly, Mapetla and Machai (1998,156) argue that survival strategy encompasses "intricate relationships where other possibilities of patronage or support are explored or formulated".

According to Ann Grady (2002: 79) the gendered structure of society is the main leading cause of female oppression. She goes on to say that views of marriage differ between males and females. Views of marriage are formed through observational learning, imitation, and modeling. As a result of gender ties, females relate to their mother's modeling while males relate to their father's. Thus, the issue of marriage becomes observatory- what others are doing, how they are doing it. Trends in marriage are also influenced greatly by structures in society. For all these reasons a great many adolescent girls – in the New World as in the old – when asked about their plans for the future, reply today as formal; ' I want to get married'. But no young man considers marriage as his fundamental project. Economic success is what will bring him adult standing; such success may imply marriage – especially – but it can also preclude it. The conditions of modern life – less stable, more uncertain than in the past – make the responsibilities of marriage especially heavy for the young man. Grady goes on to say that, the benefits of marriage to the young man have decreased since it is easily possible for him to obtain board and room and since sexual satisfaction is readily available.

1.2: Statement of the problem

In the case of Epworth marriage can be translated as an economic survival tool for women to survive hunger, perennial economic hardships as well as protection from male predators who frequently sexually abuse young women. Due the harsh realities of HIV/AIDS, children especially young girls are assuming parental roles at an early age as a result of parents passing on. This culminates into young girls undertaking illegitimate means of survival in order to put food on the table. The bustling suburb of Epworth were the research will take place is located about twelve kilometers out of Harare City Center. According to the records at the Central Statistics Office, It is a high density suburb populated by mainly poor residents of Harare. Epworth had not been planned as an urban residential area, and its rapid increase in population occurred on land without any water supply and sanitation facilities. Epworth became the only informal settlement to have been tolerated by the Zimbabwean Government in the post-independence period because of the long history of settlement by some of the residents. Due to the harsh economic times that the country has been passing through for the past decade, this area is ideal for the research to take place for it depicts how women strategize to survive in such an environment.

1.3: Aim of the research

Triggered by the general rise in issues of immorality, high divorce levels, domestic violence characterized by issues of marital rape and the rise of child headed families in Epworth; the researcher was prompted to undertake this study in order to clarify why the marriage institution has been opted for a the panacea to escape economic hardships by most young women.

1.4: Objectives

To assess the survival tactics of young urban women in Zimbabwe.

To analyze why women choose to stay in abusive marriages

To examine factors leading to the rise of domestic violence

1.5: Research questions

Is marriage a survival strategy for girls alone or for their families also?

What is the role of men in fueling this trend?

What implications arise from such unions?

Is marriage the only survival strategy which women can look up to, if not what is the contributing factor to this trend?

What has led to the decline of the moral fiber
1.6: Assumptions

The researcher worked on the assumption that marriage in general has lost its flare. It has been reduced to a survival mechanism instead of it being a union out of love. The researcher also worked on the assumption that most cases of domestic violence in Epworth are a result of these marriages of convenience. It was the researcher's assumption that multi-cultural races evident in Epworth are also a contributing factor to these marriages of convenience as evidenced by the existence of small groups like the Malawians, Zambians and Mozambicans who flocked the area in the advent of the Federation years. The results of the data collected during the research were the main component used in the research analysis. It was researcher's assumption that respondents to be selected would answer questions in utmost good faith without adding or subtracting some of the information. The research summed up views from both females and males, though the larger number of the respondents was female.

1.7: Significance of the study

Poverty necessitated by high unemployment levels has led to the derailment of the moral fiber as people both young and old have turned to unconventional means of survival. The researcher was prompted to undertake this research as a result of the alarming levels at which young women are partaking in this trend of marriages of convenience. According to Susan Wendell (1996) , disability is a socially constructed phenomena, therefore it is safe to say that society has disabled women socially, culturally, economically and religiously to that position where they have to look up to someone for their upliftment and wellbeing. This study is out to outline that the institution of marriage has socialized women in almost every arena to look up to men for survival. This research also outlined why young women are selecting this option as a viable means of survival, the research also outlined the after effects of such unions which include domestic violence. Do women who choose to stay in abusive marriages do so because there exists no other means of survival available to them or it is the easiest way out of poverty?


1.8: Limitations of the study

Difficulties are bound to be encountered in any research and the researcher of this dissertation encountered them. The aim of the research was to analyze marriage as a survival strategy, however given the time constraints; the small sample size used was a limitation in itself since it was a daunting task to sample the entire young women population of Epworth. The questionnaires used were impersonal therefore it was quite difficult to understand some of the answers. There is a high probability that some of the questions were highly misinterpreted thus rendering the answer useless. Some of the information given by the respondents was biased because some people were tempted to lie or give false information given the sensitive nature of the subject matter thereby making the research answers useless. In the case of questionnaires some people were not interested in answering open ended questions and they also they tended to fill in questionnaires without giving much thought .The other issue is the standardization of some questions as a result some of the preferred answers failed to be accounted for in the questionnaire.

Interviews countered problems stemming from questionnaires but however a disadvantage of having a small sample is that it does not always prove to be 100 percent accurate. The other reason is that they also tend to be subjected and this had a negative implication on the end result. In one case the interviewee was willing to participate but nevertheless was sensitive to the in depth exploration of certain themes which culminated in her choosing not to reveal and discuss certain aspects of the topic that the interviewer wished to explore, because this would lead to probing questions that would intrude on sensitive information that the interviewee felt she was not empowered to discuss.
1.9: De – limitations of the study

The study was limited to the residents of Epworth-Overspill only. To get validated information about marriage as a survival strategy, consultations were made from young married women, single mothers, community elders, school heads, and other ordinary citizens including a small fraction of adult males. The use of secondary sources such as books, internet and newspapers were also essential to the researcher.

1.10: Definition of terms

1.10:1 Marriage as an institution

The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual are acknowledged. Marriage also called matrimony or wedlock is a social union or legal contract between people called spouses that establish rights and obligations between the spouses and their children and their in-laws. In many cultures marriage is formalized by a wedding ceremony. According to (Ama Ata Aidoo: 2012), in Africa extended family members are an integral part of a marriage union. A very well-known characteristic of African marriage is the payment of bride price and dowry, this practise has often been misunderstood by westerners who equate this to payment of bride price to buying a human being. Gerald J Wnjohi posits that there is no end to paying dowry, though at first the dowry maybe fixed at so many goats or cows, the parents of the girl have a right to demand a gift from the family of the boy at any time during their lifetime, for this two reasons for bride price emerge:
It is a way of assuring that the girl is properly treated : in case of mistreatment , she can always return home and be accepted by her parents and other relatives
It is a means of keeping the relations between the two families alive and strong (on the hypothesis that in Africa one buys a wife, there would be no need to perpetuate this relationship, but since it is the latter which prevails the claim of wife – buying in Africa is disposed of.)

1.10.2: Patriarchy
Patriarchy is the term used to describe the society in which we live today, characterized by current and historic unequal power relations between women and men, whereby women are systematically disadvantaged and oppressed. Patriarchy (rule by fathers) is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure central to social organization and the central roles of political leadership, moral authority and control of property and where fathers hold authority over women and children. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege, and entails female subordination. Patriarchy has a strong influence on modern civilization although many cultures have moved towards a more egalitarian social system over the past century. The works of Aristotle portrayed women as morally, intellectually and physically inferior to men; saw women as the property of men; claimed that women's role in society was to reproduce and serve men and saw male domination of women as natural and virtuous
1.10.3: Religion and Marriage
Marriage is viewed as being instituted and ordained by God for the lifelong relationship between one man as husband and one woman as wife. Divorce is not an option, only on the grounds of un-chastity (Malachi 2:16; Hebrews 13:4). While marriage is honored and affirmed among Christians and throughout the Bible, there is no suggestion that it is necessary for everyone, with the Apostle Paul actually advocating for those who can control their feelings and emotions to remain celibate (1 Corinthians 7:25-39). Single people who either have chosen to remain unmarried or who have lost their spouse for some reason are neither incomplete in Christ nor personal failures. The New Testament teaches that sex is reserved for marriage; it calls sex outside of marriage the sin of adultery (for the married person). It also calls voluntary sexual intercourse between persons not married to each other the sin of fornication. In traditional churches like Methodist, Roman Catholic and Anglican for a woman to become a full member and put on denominational regalia she must hold a certificate of marriage. However Kate Millet, a radical feminist blames the Bible for the low status of women in society. Biblically the woman is a helper and the man is the head of the household, women must cover their heads and must not partake in any leadership roles within the church. According to Millet this reduces women to subordinates.
1.10.4: Culture and Marriage
Over time, norms, values, standards and cultural codes change and adapt to new economic, political, cultural and other environmental factors, and these are obvious, not only in public domains but in private lives as well. Zimbabwe is no exception. According to the African Heritage Books (2010), culturally women are socialized to tolerate any misdemeanors that come from men – 'it is in the male nature'. For the past several years, values and norms in interpersonal relationships, and, in particular, in intimate relationships between and among young people, have been changing. The institution of marriage is faced with many daunting challenges. As people made up of cultures and traditions and with the influx of Christianity and civilizations that have continued to change the lives of so many people, how is it that still we cannot overcome the problems that are associated with marriages in contemporary times. Culture bestows the role of mother to the female; respect grows with age as seen by the Shona tradition of honoring older women. Women are child bearers; they take care of the household, whilst men on the other hand put on the masculinity role of providing for the family. Culture allows men to have as many wives as he can so as to rear him many children; a large family is a symbol of prosperity.
1.10.5: Society and Marriage
During the early days of the 20th century and beyond, it was considered shameful for adults to have children unless they were married. Today, more than half of all births born to women younger than 30 years occur outside of marriage UN Demographics Survey (2010). There are now more households that consist of single adults than there are married – with – children. It is clear that attitudes are changing rapidly about marriage and the rules that govern intimate relationships, and they are changing throughout the world. People are now increasingly less tolerant and less willing to remain in unsatisfactory or unhappy marriages, and today people tend to be more enlightened about what a good marriage is. Fewer and fewer people are willing to feel trapped in an unhappy relationship indefinitely.
1.10.6: Socio – Economic challenges in Zimbabwe
Society labels the man as the provider – the head of the household, with the Bible saying he must eat that which he has sweated for (Genesis), thus cementing him again as the provider. When all the other institutions of government fail, surprisingly that of marriage never fails. The period stretching from 2000-2009 in Zimbabwe was characterized by an economic meltdown that saw the inflation rate rising to inflated figures on a daily basis. The cost of living became high as basic commodities were no longer available. Such scenarios place women at risk of being exploited as they seek methods to survive. The political disturbances that were witnessed in Zimbabwe in 2008 are also a factor that placed women as bait to sexual abuse.
1.11: Feasibility of the study

According to an article in the Daily News titled ' Instant marriages' take root in Epworth, unemployment and poverty have eroded family stability and morals in the informal settlement of Epworth, were sex and drinking are the major activities. The results are unreported rape cases, early marriages and teen pregnancies which have become so common place that they have become accepted as the norm. The article goes on to say short term marriages are also the order of the day, and it is not headline news for a pregnant woman to leave her husband to stay with the man next door. The implications however of this short term marriages are long term endurance of violence and abuse.

1.12: Summary of the chapter

This chapter sought to explain that what the world is experiencing today is a depiction of how the institution of marriage has lost its meaning. These challenges to the institution prove that values are being eroded due to economic; social; cultural and societal ills. This chapter managed to highlight the roots of were women are coming from in terms their psychological over - dependence to their male counterparts. It also highlighted how society views a single woman and how she is morally regarded as a failure.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The main purpose of this chapter is to allow different materials to be gathered, interpreted and eventually be compared with the primary research. The literature review is the vital component of the research process. The aim of the literature review is to provide a set of explanatory concept related to marriage as a survival strategy for young women in Epworth. This chapter reviews related literature on marriage and how it is conceptualized in other cultures. These include theoretical framework and identification of research gaps. The following headings guide this chapter, marriage as a social norm, post colonial theorist. Various sub-headings are also included under the main headings to clarify and elaborate on issues of concern in studying urban survival strategies of young women. This topic looks at marriage as a survival tool. The key factor is poverty with marriage often being seen as a strategy for economic survival by most young ladies.

2.2: Theoretical Framework
2.2.1: Marriage as a social norm

Most cultures define marriage as the most ancient and important social strategy. Its objective apart from procreation and the production of offspring within a family framework is to preserve the social order and a value system that sanctifies lineage and possession Caldwell JC, (1977). Feminists believe that the institution of marriage is the chief vehicle for the perpetuation of the oppression of women; it is through the role of wife that the subjugation of women is maintained.
2.3 Post – Colonial Feminist Theory

Post-colonial feminism transcends the collective efforts of non-Western and Western scholars to critically analyze the colonial aftermath and challenge the hegemony of Western science. Postcolonial feminism is a subset of feminism that developed in the 1980s as a response to the fact that feminism seemed to focus solely on the experiences of women in Western cultures. Post colonial feminism seeks to account for the way that racism and the long-lasting political, economic and cultural effects of colonialism affects non-white, non Western women in the postcolonial world. Postcolonial feminism is a relatively new stream of thought, developing primarily out of the work of the postcolonial theorists who concern themselves with evaluating how different colonial and imperial relations throughout the 19th century have impacted the way particular cultures view themselves. This particular strain of feminism promotes a wider viewpoint of the complex layers of oppression that exist within a given society. Postcolonial feminism may be defined as a critical perspective aimed at addressing issues stemming from social inequalities that have an impact on the issues of non-Western populations. According to Denzin and Lincoln(1994) Postcolonial feminism began simply as a critique of both Western feminism and postcolonial theory but later became a burgeoning method of analysis to address key issues within both fields. Unlike postcolonial theory which focuses on the lingering impacts that colonialism has had on the current economic and political institutions of countries, postcolonial feminist theorist are interested in analyzing why postcolonial theory fails to address the issues of gender. Chandra Talpade Mohanty (1984) asserts that western feminists write about Third World women as a composite singular construction that is arbitrary and limiting. She states that these women are depicted in writings as victims of masculine control and of traditional culture without incorporating information about historical content and cultural differences in the third world.

2.4: Marriage in Africa

Courtesy of World Fertility Survey and DHS data, Analysts have detected two groups of countries: those where marriage age is rising, such as Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe and Senegal, and those where there is little change, including Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Lesotho, Liberia and Mali. In several countries, over 40 per cent of young women have entered marriage or a quasi-married union by the time they reach the age of 18 -23 By contrast, in only two countries are more than 10 per cent of boys under 19 are married. Early marriage is generally more prevalent in Central and West Africa – affecting 40 per cent and 49 percent respectively of girls under 19 – compared to 27 per cent in East Africa and 20per cent in North and Southern Africa. Many of these young women are second or third wives who live in polygamous households'. Another close look at these countries shows that they are volatile either war or unrest can erupt at any time, thus it can be safely concluded that women in unstable regions also use marriage as a survival'tactic from the effects of war. In some African countries, notably Botswana and Namibia, few girls marry in their teens. However, cohabitation is relatively common. While the trend towards later marriage is clear for the continent as a whole, there are some countries, such as Lesotho and Mozambique, where the trend has been in the other direction.
2.5: Diverging marriage practices in Asia

Whilst African women are en –route towards marriage, in Asia it is rather a detour. In 2011 The Economist reported that marriage is changing fast in East, South East and South Asia, even though each region has different traditions, the changes are different from those that took place in the West in the second half of the 20th century. What is happening in Asia is a flight from marriage. Marriage rates are falling partly because people are postponing getting hitched. People now marry even later than they do in the West. The mean age of marriage in the richest places – Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong – has risen sharply in the past few decades, to reach 29-30 for women and 31-33 for men. A lot of Asians are not marrying later; they are not marrying at all. Almost a third of Japanese women in their 30s are unmarried; probably half of them will stay that way. Over one –fifth of Taiwanese women in their late 30s are single; most will never marry. In some places, rates of non- marriage are especially striking: in Bangkok, 20 percent of 40-44 year old women are not married. Women are retreating from marriage as they go into the workplace. That is partly because, for a woman being both employed and married is tough in Asia. Women there are the primary caregivers for husbands, children and often ageing parents; and even when in full time employment they are expected to continue to play this role. This notion is true elsewhere in the world. Japanese women, who typically work 40 hours a week in the office, then do, on average another 30 hours of housework.

At the same time as employment makes marriage tougher for women, it also offers them an alternative. More women are financially independent, so more of them can pursue a single life that may appeal more than the drudgery of a traditional marriage. More education has also contributed to the decline of marriage, because highly educated Asian women have always been reluctant to wed. According to The Economist the flight from marriage in Asia is thus the result of the greater freedom that women enjoy these days, which is to be celebrated. But it is also creating social problems. Compared with the West, Asian countries have invested less in pensions and other forms of social protection, on the assumption that the family will look after ageing or ill relatives. That can no longer be taken for granted. The decline in marriage patterns has led to the collapse in birth rate with fertility falling from 5.3 children per woman to 1.6, thus leading to huge demographic deficits as populations' age with startling speed. Marriage socializes men: it is associated with lower levels of testosterone and less criminal behaviour - The Economist.

There are also cases where the stress of conflict or HIV/AIDS seems to be contributing to early marriage as showcased by the research conducted by UNICEF in 2012 on Syrian refugees who have settled in Jordan. A number of Syrians who have settled in Jordan have decided to marry their daughters off at a very young age in order to protect them from rape attempts and harsh living conditions. According to the UNICEF agency based in Jordan they have witnessed approximately 50 cases of early marriages (within the refugee community) Khaled Ghane – of the Islamic Association he notes that some Syrian refugees in Jordan are marrying off their daughters at very young ages with hopes that this will protect them from harsh living conditions and lighten the burdens of their families. These marriages are not licensed due to trouble accessing the records. Thus from this research by UNICEF it can be concluded also that marriage can be a mechanism to adapt to better living conditions.

According to the United Nations Population Fund, between 2011 and 2020, more than 140 million girls will be married and half of these girls will be under the age of 15. If the current level of child marriages continues, 39000 girls will get married on a daily basis. In Sub-Saharan Africa more than half of all the girls give birth by age 20. In some countries like Mozambique, Malawi and Uganda more than 70% of girls give birth by age 20.

2.6: Marriage in Zimbabwe

There is a minimum marriageable age law in Zimbabwe, under general law of the country which
is 16 for girls and 18 for boys but the practice of early marriage continues as customary law ,which is also part of the legal system and is followed by any in personal matters, does not have
a minimum age for marriage. The practice of early marriage is in conflict with modernization
and development in society as it seriously undermines a girl child's opportunities in the future
because of lack of education. According to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency the median
age at first marriage in Zimbabwe has been declining from 19 years for women currently aged
45-49 years to 16 years for those aged 15-19 years. Five percent of women aged 15-49 years currently in marriage or union were married before the age 15. Marriage before age 15 years decreased with education of women and household wealth, and increased with age of woman. On the other hand, 32 percent of the women aged 20-49 years currently in marriage or union were married before age 18 years. Marriage before age 18 years decreased as education and wealth increased. The proportion of women aged 20-49 years who married before age 18 years was highest in the age group 45-49 years at 40% compared to around 31% in the rest of the age groups.
2.7: Sexual Cultures in Epworth

A sexual culture refers to personal or a social norm regarding sexuality. According to The Sex Positive Movement, in most societies the term normal identifies a range of behaviors, rather than each act being simply classified as 'acceptable' or 'not acceptable' more often than not it is regarded as unacceptable. In a report titled "Instant Marriages" take root in Epworth, in the Daily News the reporter clarifies the sexual cultures in Epworth. He states that Epworth is a largely informal sector where residents live in abject poverty and cohabitation is often the route to survive the economic hardships young females face daily, giving birth to the phenomenon commonly referred to as "instant marriage" in the area. It has become the norm for men and women to live together and have children in a short space of time before looking for other partners. Community elders say young girls are getting "married" for convenience sake while the boys have turned to sex and alcohol that takes much of their time. According to one of the community elder Mr. Andrew Munene, too many people are having children like rats, and it is a cause of concern for they are simply living together for the sake of survival, and when the spark and good living ends, they move on to the next person as they are continually look for men to fend for their children. With rampant unemployment and low economic activity, sex has become the only form of entertainment and employment. It is highly evident that most of these children have no jobs and are not involved in any self-help projects so they are just roaming around. Such youngsters are usually stressed about not having any form of employment and sex which is readily available provides some sort of 'relief'. Poverty is largely referred to as the major cause of this phenomenon. Epworth is made up of a blend of cultures consisting people from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia. This cultural blend is characterised by the sexual infusion /interaction of various cultures some of which have now become common in Epworth.
2.8: Homelessness

In 2005 the Zimbabwean government launched Operation Murambatsvina 'allegedly' to clean up cities with the support of the police, army, and youth militia. In three weeks since the beginning of this "clean up', estimates of the displaced vary from 300,000 to over a million, and hundreds of thousands more lost their sources of income in the informal sector. The Government, under the auspices of the Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises Development, began by arresting 20,000 vendors countrywide, destroying their vending sites, and confiscating their wares. Thousands more escaped arrest, but lost their livelihoods. This process took one week in the first instance. Harare was among the worst affected cities: police action was brutal and unannounced. Vendors, who have been operating in the same places without complaint or interference for their entire working lives, were confronted with riot squads without any warning, rounded up, arrested, and watched helplessly while their source of livelihood was destroyed, Sokwanele (2005). As a result of this clean up exercise most families found themselves homeless and jobless. A large percentage of the displaced people found their way into Epworth.
2.9: Summary

The chapter provided a discussion of a theoretical framework that was relevant to the study. It looked at different subtopics to do with women. This chapter was reviewing literature with the hope of finding out gaps in knowledge and it helped in knowing what other scholars and authors are saying about the topic.








CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1: Introduction

This chapter presents the research methods that were used by the researcher to gather, collect, present and analyze data from respondents. It includes the research design, research instruments, target population, sampling method among other things. The main goal of this chapter however is to get an understanding of why young women are resorting to marriage as a survival strategy and why they are condoning domestic violence by continuing to stay in abusive relationships.

3.2: Research Design

A research design is a logical model that guides the researcher in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observation. Research design is a framework or blue print for conducting research project (Malhotra and Birks, 2007:64) it is a plan for addressing the research objectives or hypothesis. In essence the researcher develops a structure or framework to answer a specific research problem. In this study the researcher used qualitative design. Laccobuci and Churchill, (2002) define qualitative data as descriptive data. The researcher used the qualitative method because it provides a holistic view of the research problem, qualitative methods give the respondent freedom to express their feelings and opinions about the subject matter because of its descriptive nature, in this case women who stayed in abusive marriages narrated different subject matters that explained their stay in these abusive unions. The advantages of using qualitative research design are numerous Wilson (2006) explains that; the data gathering process is less structured and more flexible than quantitative research and does not sorely rely on predefined question and answer format associated with questionnaires, it involves small samples of individuals who are not necessarily representative of larger populations. It also enhances the quality of the research and simplifies the subsequent descriptive process. The data produced is not quantifiable and is not statistically valid because qualitative research is concerned with understanding things rather than with measuring them. The researcher obtains deeper and more penetrating insights into topics than would be the case with the questionnaire or a more structured interview Wilson (2006) It has its weaknesses however of often being noted as biased, small scale, anecdotal and/ lacking rigor but Claire Anderson (2010) states that when it is carried out properly it is unbiased, in depth, valid, reliable, credible and rigorous. The research was exploratory meaning that the researcher wanted to discover why young women in the study chose marriage as a survival option.

3.3: Study Population

The population is defined as the target group of interest to the research to which results of the study are generalized (Best and Khan, 1993). The researcher focused on young women in Overspill and they represented the population.
3.4: Sample and Sampling Procedures

The researcher selected thirty people for this research and these included thirty females consisting of both single, married and those in between. For the purpose of the study the researcher used purposive sampling in selecting the participants.

A sample is a small population selected for observation and analysis. The small group represents the whole population. When dealing with people it can be viewed as a set of respondents selected from a larger population (Best and Khan, 1993:13). A sample according to Schaefer,(2004:31) is a selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population. The researcher used purposive sampling because it is a form of non probability sampling in which decisions concerning the individual to be included in the sample are taken by the researcher, based upon a variety of criteria which may include specialist knowledge of the research issue or capacity and willingness to participate in the research. (Oliver, 2010)

3.5: Research Instruments

These are tools used for collecting information and data needed to find solutions to the problem under investigation, Strauss and Corbin (2000). In conducting this study, the researcher considered both questionnaires and interviews as data collection instruments.
3.5.1 Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a set of questions designed to generate the data necessary to accomplish the objectives of the research project and it is a formalized schedule for collecting information from respondents, McDaniel and Rogers, (2008). Questionnaires can describe the frequency of demographic characteristics or traits held, explore relationship between different factors or delineate the reasons for particular practice Babbie and Morton, (2001). The questionnaires were used in this research together with interviews and were used to qualitatively analyze the data collected. McDaniel and Rogers, (2008) add that a questionnaire standardizes the wording and sequencing of questions and impose uniformly on the data gathering process. This control ensures the validity of any comparison being made between different respondents answers as well as providing data in a form that can be easily analyzed. Wilson,(2006) notes that the primary objective of the questionnaire design is to try and reduce the 'noise' or distortion in that two way communication , in order that each party correctly understands what the other is saying.

3.5.2: In-depth Interviews

The benefits of in-depth interviews include the fact that the respondent is the centre and therefore be probed at length to explore remarks made that may provide critical insights into the main issue (Wilson 2006). Malhotra and Birks ,(2007) describes in-depth interviews as an unstructured , direct personal interviews in which a single participant is probed by an interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes and feelings on a topic. A woman being abused might not feel comfortable stating her case in front of other people in fear of being labeled by society, Thus this research tool is very important since it was used in conjunction with questionnaires.
The respondents cannot hide behind other people's comments since each marital union is unique.
There is no need to compete to talk
Group pressure is eliminated, so the respondent review what he/she actually thinks rather than what is acceptable to the rest of the group
Some respondents were willing to talk about their marriage but were hesitant to discuss in front of other people therefore in depth interviews proved ideal. Interviewers can also adjust the language of the interview as they observe the problems and effects the interview is having on the participant. An interviewer can explain what kind of answer is sought, how complete it should be, and in what terms it should be expressed. The researcher used these two different methods since one cover for the shortcomings of the other.
3.6: Data Presentation and Discussion Procedures

On data presentation, the researcher presents the data collected thematically which is a most common form of analysis in qualitative research. Themes were used to help in illustrating several survival tactics of young urban females. Themes help researchers move their analysis from a broad reading of the data towards discovering patterns and developing themes. Thematic analysis is a category of qualitative data analysis whereby according to Fossey et al (2002) the researcher carries out the process of reviewing, synthesizing and interpreting data to describe and explain the phenomena or social worlds being studied.

3.7: Ethical Considerations

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide morale choices about our behavior and our relationship with others (Cooper and Schindler 2003:120). Whenever one conducts a research on people, the well being of research participants must be a top priority, the research question is always of secondary importance. Some of research ethics the researcher observes includes:
3.8: Informed consent

The researcher made sure that the women were not forced into participating. Participation in research was voluntary. The researcher sought consent to do the interviews with the research participants since no one should be studied without his or her knowledge (Miller, 2007:170). No one was forced to be a subject in the study and no one was forced to continue in the study. Participants knew in advance what the research project involved and they gave their explicit agreement to be included, and the youth were informed beforehand about the aim of the research. Agreement to participate is not sufficient rather the agreement must come after the participant has been fairly informed about what the research entails.

3.9: Confidentiality and privacy

In as much as women are keen to discuss their complicated marital lives, they do not consider becoming star attractions in public as a result of their complicated lifestyles. Women in abusive unions also fear that if their husbands get to know that they were sharing their matrimonial bliss issues with other people things might get out of hand, as a result confidentiality was ensured to all participants. Confidentiality of the women was guaranteed. Information obtained in research was confidential and was never made available in a way that could harm the participant, it is important that the anonymity of individual participants be safeguarded (Miller, 2007:179). The researcher ensured that respondent right to privacy and confidentiality was strictly preserved and the researcher made it clear that the research was for academic purposes only.

3.10: Right to withdraw

The women were told during the research that they had the right to withdraw at any point. Whenever they felt they were under threat the women were told that they had the right to withdraw.



3.11: Summary

In summary, this chapter clearly elaborates how the investigation was carried out. It defines the instruments used and explains why they were used it also goes on to show the strength and weaknesses of each instrument used. It clearly shows how the sample was selected, how the instruments were constructed and administered. Interviews and questionnaires were very useful since they enabled the researcher to understand the challenges being faced by young women on a daily basis.













CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1: Introduction

This chapter presents and discusses the data collected from the respondents who are young women in Overspill, Epworth through questionnaires and interviews. This chapter is organized under different themes. The researcher employs the thematic approach in data presentation and discussion as it clearly outlines the findings. Themes enabled the researcher to make comprehensive analysis of the findings on the challenges and opportunities of marriage.

4.2: Presentation of research findings

The research was carried out in Overspill, Epworth area and the study comprised of respondents, 30 (thirty) women.

4.2.1: Survival tactics of young urban women in Epworth.

Using the interview guide, the researcher was able to sum up some rather interesting findings. Of the 30 women 20 respondents were in agreement that marriage, prostitution, vending and cross border trading are the most popular surviving trends for urban women. To a lesser extent it was evident from the responses given that resorting to marriage as a survival strategy was not a direct result of unemployment on the side of the women but rather it lay in cultural context of women being regarded as full beings based on their relationship to their male counterparts. Marriage is believed to accord one status and a sense of belonging, to be called "mukadzi wanhingi"( x's wife) is believed to give one a sense of self worth. The respondents highlighted that society is often brutal to the unmarried woman who is often regarded as a waste or having been bewitched by evil spirits. This is also inculcated by the use of derogatory words such as mumvana(daughter) being used to describe an unmarried woman.

It was also evident from the findings that the pressure to get married often resulted in issues of marital rape, domestic violence and higher HIV/AIDS prevalence. One of the respondents a 25 year old woman highlighted that marriage is supposed to provide a safe haven for women but as noted in the findings women in informal marital unions tend to have the upper hand when it comes to negotiating safe sex unlike women in rather permanent marriage settings. One of the young married women *Ruvimbo blatantly stated that every time she asks her husband to use protection during sexual intercourse he denies. She went on to state the husband is well known for promiscuity in the area. And when she asks him to use protection he simply states that:

" Mombe dzangu dzakaenda dzakapfeka macondom here", (did the cows l used to pay your dowry go with condoms on them? )
In as much as the payment of dowry dignifies a marital union, in some instances as in Ruvimbo's case it simply defines women as appendages of their relationships to their male counterparts. When asked whether she would want to go for an HIV test she replied that she was afraid of knowing her status in her own words:
"Chero ndichingoona hangu zuva richibuda nekunyura ose machena," (as long as l am able to see the sun rise and sunset, all is well with me)

4.2.2: Why do women choose to stay in abusive relationships

One of the respondents was an 18 year old girl who first moved to Harare from her rural home in Mutoko when she was 14 to work as a domestic worker. She met her current husband who was also a general hand who worked in the same area as her. Their relationship was catalyzed into marriage by an unplanned pregnancy. This saw the young girl leaving work and staying at their new home in Epworth. Her marriage is characterized by violence since the husband lost his job, she had bruises all around her - a sign of constant abuse, and she once reported him to the police but withdrew the charges in the 11th hour fearing that if he goes to jail there would be no one to take care of her and her 3 young children. The husband only managed to send $50 to the girls' relatives as tsvakiraikuno. The beating has not stopped; she cannot walk out of the marriage because back in her rural home both parents are late. This shows that early sexual debuts amongst young women resulting in them falling pregnant, exposes them to a marital world full of challenges that are way too big for them to handle. Thus choosing marriage as a safe haven to escape life's challenges does not always translate to happily ever after.

The other respondent *Maria at a tender age of 24, she is already a widow. The husband died in a car accident nearly a year ago. Since she had eloped in the first place and had not yet finalized her union with her husband, the husband's relatives ransacked the whole house and left her with nothing. Right now she survives on cross border trading. She hinted that the trade is no longer a lucrative as it was in the past as many people have all now turned to cross-border trading for survival; as a result she noted that she entertains several men at different times to supplement her small income. Money from selling her wares is not enough for her to pay rent, school fees for her son and to put food on the table. According to her she is not a prostitute but rather someone trying to survive. She hinted that she has her regular customers of whom she offers her services from time to time and surprisingly she hopes to find a soul mate among her regular clients. She is however also prone to abuse as some of her regular customers at times refuse to pay her and end up beating her. She cannot report them to the police because law officers regard her mode of survival as illegal, thus she continues to suffer in silence.

The other respondent was also a widow; the husband was a welder in the area who unfortunately passed on due to a short circuit that occurred whilst he was fixing a client's gate. The trouble that befell this young lady was that whilst the husband was still alive he forbade the woman from undertaking in any income generating initiatives. As a result the young widow is not skilled in any trade she once tried vending in the city centre of Harare but with the constant face offs with the Harare City council policemen everyday she had very little profit to manage the trade. She has resorted to entertaining various men in the area as this skill does not require much specialized training like other formal income generating initiatives. She has her clientele that assure her of an income daily. When asked why she cannot find herself a normal male companion and get into a more formalized marital unit she replied:
"Munin'ina varume vanoda kuroora mazuvano havachawinike, kungori kuyamurana pataundi" (My sister man longing for marriage are scarce nowadays, it's merely helping each other to survive in town).

4.2.3: Factors leading to the rise of domestic violence

*Chido, a young woman in her mid-twenties was brave enough to come out in the open and stated that her marriage has proved to be a torturous burden than she had initially anticipated. She never wanted much in a marriage she simply wanted to have a husband who will take care of her, start a family and be happy. However she got the opposite, her husband has not been working in fact he has never worked before, all he used to do was some odd jobs here and there. But upon the coming of Chido all he now does is sleep all day and night and still expects to see a decent meal on the table. Chido is a vegetable vendor, she wakes up early morning and travels to Mbare Musika to buy vegetables for resale in Overspill she has even expanded her trade by selling second hand clothes next to her vegetable stall to increase her daily takings. After the end of each working day she has to give some her daily takings to her friends for safe keeping, because upon arrival at home every day the husband demands that she hands over all her takings. Instead of being taken care of as she initially thought Chido is now the one taking care of her husband. Chido is fed up and is contemplating leaving this union together with her son and live in another town. This shows that the notion of using marriage as a survival tactic is considered acceptable when it is the woman benefitting and not the other way round.

*Dolly was another interesting respondent, she was not very much forthcoming with her age before she even answered the question about her age she was already talking a different topic. One could not easily guess her age due to the fact that young women are now becoming sexually active at rather juvenile stages of their lives as a result it remains tricky to guess someone's age without offending them. Dolly moved to Epworth after her lodgings were destroyed by the infamous Operation Murambatsvina in 2005. She moved together with her son. According to her life has never been easy, moving to Epworth was not supposed to be a permanent move, it was meant to be temporary, but the ensuing economic downturn that emanated in Zimbabwe left her with no choice but to formalize her stay in the area. She could have gone to her mother in her rural home in Musana but however when her mother got remarried long back her husband wanted nothing to do with the kids as a result their mother abandoned them. She survives by collecting plastic for sale at recycling depots. The money is not enough, she hopes of getting a formal job in town but with little educational qualifications her hopes do not stretch very far. This shows that even for a person who wants to live a decent normal life the environment is not permitting.

4.3 Discussion of research findings

The majority of the respondents interviewed highlighted that they have encountered a form of abuse and that was either physical or emotionally, this coincides with a report a UN special edition publication for women (2012) which states that in most countries as many as one in three women are beaten, coerced into sex or otherwise abused in their lifetime. This could be attributed to the fact that the Zimbabwean society is a patriarchal society and that the males are regarded as the head of the family, whatever decision a man makes, he cannot be questioned.

4.3.1: Perceptions of the young women towards marriage

Most of the young girls who took part in this study believed that a woman has to get married. If she has to do other things which include advancing her education or attain a specified qualification it has to be done after getting married. Getting married is the primary goal seek ye' the marriage kingdom first and the rest will follow. Their decision to cohabit was a conscious one as it freed them from what they perceived as the limiting and constraining effects of marriage, however women who were cohabiting highlighted that it was not a bed of roses for them considering that they had difficulties and challenges in their relationships . Despite the temporary and, at times, problematic nature of marital unions, the perceived potential benefits possibly explain why many of the women interviewed still saw marriage as desirable and a strategy that would enable them to cope with poverty.

4.3.2: Marriage as a survival strategy

Obbo (1986), linked urban women's twofold goals to their ability to establish their own economic and social credibility and to protect themselves against what they perceive as material and status vulnerability that results from divorce, widowhood, or remaining single. Women try often successfully, to improve their social and economic status through establishing various types of relationships with men. While conceding that the strategy of manipulating womanhood and motherhood as a transactional tool did not always work for all women, Obbo argued that it enabled some women to access financial and material resources, sometimes including housing from their lovers, even though this might not result in paying of the lobola. This strategy worked for some of this study's respondents. Indeed, some of the respondents lived mostly on the money earned by the husband.

4.3.3 Women as the second sex

Marriage has always been a different thing for man and for woman. The respondents highlighted that they were into the institution of marriage because they wanted to benefit rather than survive. This is different with man, a man is socially an independent and complete individual (Marsh 1998). Socialisation has made it impossible for women in the society; the society expects a woman to behave in a certain way and to be passive all the time thus the woman is regarded as the second sex, after man. The woman is viewed as a subordinate.

4.3.4 Domestic violence and its impact on women

The majority of the respondents highlighted that at some point they faced abuse at the hands of man, and this can be supported by the rise of domestic violence in Zimbabwe. Domestic violence invades the public and private lives of women, Apart from visible physical effects such as broken bones, death, gynaecological injuries, pregnancy complications, sexually transmitted diseases, some chronic health conditions that have been linked to victims of domestic violence area arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pain, pelvic pain, ulcers, and Migraines,( Marsh 1998). Some of the psychological effects are chronic depression, loss of hope in the future, suicidal behaviour, drug and alcohol dependence, anxiety, low self-esteem, inability to trust, fear of intimacy, sexual dysfunction, sleep disturbances, inability to concentrate, and flashbacks. The situation is made worse by the fact that women still find it extremely difficult to report cases even of marital rape, even though the act was finally criminalised in Zimbabwe in 2002 through the Sexual Offences Act. Bergen (1999) and the African Population Research and Health Centre (2010) found out that marital rape is one of the under-reported violent crimes because it is socially tolerated. Women feel that this is a betrayal to the husband.

Evolutionary psychologists such as Wilson and Daly (1993) hypothesize that one goal of male-perpetrated domestic violence is control over female sexuality, including the deterrence of infidelity, from the responses of the young women it was evident that rates of domestic violence decrease as women age, thus most young marriages unions be they formal or informal are mostly characterised by violence.
4.3.5: Legislative deficiencies in relation to the protection of women in marriages

Though the government of Zimbabwe through the Domestic violence bill have tried to protect women and give them an upper hand in marriage, the case of Prime minister Morgan Tsvangirai bought to shore the inadequacy of certain legislative laws that seek to protect women in marriages, At the centre of the gossip, the tabloids, and the speculation lay the very important issue of the fact that the structure and form of Zimbabwe's marriage system made it possible for the confusion surrounding the Prime Minister's marital life to arise. In her opening remarks in the case of Locardia Karimatsenga v Morgan Richard Tsvangirai & Others, Justice Antonia Guvava of the High Court of Zimbabwe stated;
"This matter once again brings to the limelight the lack of harmony in the marriage laws and the
unfortunate consequences of the application of two parallel laws with one legal system and for the same group of people." Justice Guvava went on further to state the position that the women's movement has been advocating for years, that "there is need for urgent legislative intervention which has been sadly lacking despite numerous calls by this court and women's groups for a resolution." Of crucial note are Justice Guvava's remarks regarding the state of the marriage system in Zimbabwe that "it is not in dispute that a very large number of marriages in Zimbabwe are in terms of unregistered customary law unions. It is also not in dispute that legislature has not done anything to try and rationalise the marriage laws of this country so that problems such as the one that presents itself in this case are dealt with."
4.3.6: Religion as a psychological oppressor of women

Early Marriages are prevalent among the Johanne Marange Apostolic sect. This is a church commonly known as 'vapostori' that is believed to constitute approximately 1.2 million members in the country -Hastings. Regardless of the large following of this church, it carries astonishing weaknesses which are not of concern to its adherents due to their lack of education. To start with, the Holy Spirit is used as an intimidating tool, instilling fear in members not to do certain acts as they are threatened with curses. The same Holy Spirit is used to validate child marriages as the prophets would have been 'directed' by the Holy Spirit to marry young girls. They also believe that girls should only have minimum schooling, and, therefore, as soon as a girl reaches puberty they are married off. The lack of education often dis-empowers the girls. They do not question certain harmful practices in the church such as the practice of not taking children to health institutions. The cross-generational nature of marriages in the church is also problematic because young girls cannot stand up for themselves in the marriage to demand safe sex or take part in decisions.
4.4: Summary

This chapter was representative of all the data that was gathered in the field of study in Overspill, Epworth in relation to marriage as a survival strategy as well as other related data. Various topics were used in supplementing the presentation and discussion of these findings.





CHAPTER FIVE : CONCLUSION
5.1: Summary

The thrust of this research study was to investigate marriage in its rather unusual nature whereby it is now a life assurance policy for a better life for young women. Millennium Development Goal number 3 calls for the empowerment of women and gender equality. Equality however can never be achieved without economic emancipation of women, without it women still have to look up to someone as their messiah. As highlighted in this research's findings women are driven by poverty and the desire for a better life for them and their children to partake in these marriages of convenience. The fact that the economy is not performing well is another hindrance for the women to adopt safe survival mechanisms. Young age and the low status of these young women in society often leaves them with little or no power to determine if, when and with whom to become pregnant, they also they have little choice in the timing and number of their children.
Chapter one introduced the issue at hand taking the marriage institution into retrospect how it has evolved over time to what it is now. Chapter two provided the relevant literature. The literature reviewed gave a clear picture on what the scholars thought about marriage also highlighting other rather diverging marriage practices of other countries. Chapter three elaborated the methodological aspect of the research all in a bid to sum up different survival techniques of young urban women. Chapter four highlighted what the researcher found in the field, the real story. Qualitative research design was also cooperated in the research. It made use of in depth interviews and used questionnaires as research tools. The sample had thirty women from Epworth and this was the sample that was used in coming up with chapter four. Ethical considerations such informed consent and confidentiality and privacy were also observed to obtain information from the young women in Epworth. The researcher made sure that these ethical considerations were observed and that the participants were not forced to participate in the research. Data was presented from emerging themes from questionnaires and interviews. The study was motivated by the challenges faced by the young women both married and those surviving through what the researcher termed informal marriages settings and the implications related to this.
5.2: Conclusion

The project was looking at marriage as a survival strategy a development that inspired most young women to look up to marriage as a survival technique. The study reviewed that although young women were aware of the looming dangers such as HIV/AIDS, and the possibility of dying as a result of being murdered in abusive unions, they chose to partake this trend anyhow despite of the dangers. There were notable challenges however that the researcher noted that were being faced but young women in trying to make a decent living and these included inadequate funding from organizations that promised to empower them, shortage of land to embark on large scale projects like horticulture, lack of a participatory approach from various stakeholders that purport to rally behind issues of women emancipation among other things, and the young women were suggesting that maybe if they were to be involved in many of these empowering initiatives they only hear on radio it might be that opportunity they are waiting for to empower themselves.




5.3: Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study the following recommendation were noted

The NGOs need to come up with a variety of projects to cater for different women and not only to stick to the same projects some of which no longer hold credence with young women.
Stakeholders and the government need to come up with long term solutions on how to empower young women.
Increase the number of female legislators in government in order for them to forward issues to do with women since they understand them better.
Government and the NGOs need to present a united front when engaging developmental issues in the community failure of which often results in the marginalization of certain areas.
There is need not only to put in place policies but also implement policies that protect young girls from being religiously betrothed to older man.
NGOs and government to not only limit awareness campaigns on the dangers of early sexual debuts in secondary schools but to also increase that in lower levels such as in primary schools.
Increase follow-ups of previously introduced initiatives that assist women to make sure that these initiatives remain functional.
There is need for clear lines of communication between young people and the stakeholders.
Church leaders and community elders to emphasize on leading exemplary lives in their marital unions so that they act as role models who can be emulated by young people in their communities.
Reduce bureaucracy in accessing the BEAM fund in schools to make sure that those young girls and boys having difficulty in paying their school fees are assisted without too many hassles as a result they will not resort to marriage as a survival technique.
Use of role models to inspire young people to do positive things.
Getting girls into school and getting them to stay in school since their numbers continue to dwindle as they give into marriage.
Zimbabwean politicians particularly women also have to deal with political systems that promote patronage ,under such systems politicians are beholden to their party hierarchy rather than to their constituents which renders elected women officials less effective in policymaking
Sustained condemnation of sexual violence in conflict situations and advocacy

5.4: Summary

In this chapter the researcher gave recommendations to the study basing on the facts and data gathered in all the chapters. Recommendations were given after discussion of the researched data. This chapter particularly emphasized the need for the NGOs, the government and the young women themselves to work together for the future of their lives to improve.



REFERENCES

Caldwel L, John C. (1977), 'Role of Marital and Sexual Abstinence in Determining Fertility: A Study of the Yoruba in Nigeria', Journal of Population Studies, Volume 31, 1

Chant, S. (1996) Women and Survival in Mexico Cities (Manchester, Manchester University Press).

Denzin and Lincoln, (1997), Interpretive Ethnography: Ethnographic practices for the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Heiberg, T. (2001), Commodities in Stigma and Shame. An International Overview of Save the Children's work against child sexual abuse and exploitation, Sweden, Save the Children.

Hofstede, G. (1980), Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills, Sage Publications.

Hoodfar, H. (2008) 'The Long Road Home: Adolescent Afghan Refugees in Iran Contemplate 'Return', 165-187 in Hart, J. (ed.), Years of Conflict. Adolescence, Political Violence and Displacement, Oxford, Berghahn Books.

IPPF, Ending Child Marriage: A guide for Policy Action (2007), Available on http://www.ippf.org/NR/rdonlyres/8415A7E9-083

Keenan, J.F. and Shannon, T.A. (1995) The Context of Casuistry, Washington, Georgetown University Press.

Maholtra and Birks, N. (2003), Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, Financial Times /Prentice Hall

Malhotra and Birks, N. (2007), Marketing Research. An applied Approach , European Edition 2nd edition

Mapetla, M. and Machai, P. (1998) Beer brewing as survival strategy in urban Lesotho, in Mapetla, M., Larson, A. and Schlyter, A. (eds.) Changing Gender Relations in Southern Africa: Issues of Urban Life,155-183.

Mc Daniel, B and Rogers, D, (2008). Causes of Ineffective Advertising , Journal of business and Industrial Marketing, vol:10

Miller, S. (2007). Developmental Research Methods 3rd edition, Sage, Los Angeles

Mbiti, J. S. (1999). African Religion and Philosophy. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, reprinted.

Oliver , P. (2010), Understanding Research Process, Sage, London

Schaefar, R. (2004). Sociology, A Brief Introduction, Sage, New York

Silverman, D. (2004). Qualitative Research Theory Methods and Practice, London, Sage Publications

Strauss and Corbin, Research, Vol 35 , No 6,November/December 1995

Moser, C. (1989), Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gender
Needs. World Development 17 (11), 1799-1825.

The Millennium Developmental Goals Report .2012. United Nations publication

Obbo,C, (1986), Stratification and the Lives of Women in Uganda', in Robertson, C and Berger. I, (eds.) Women and Class in Africa, London, Africana Publishing Company

Outtara, M., Sen, P. and Thomson, M. (1998) Forced Marriage, Forced Sex: the perils of childhood for girls, Gender and Development, 6(3): 27-33.PATTON, M. C. (2008)

Owen, M, (1996), A World of Widows, Zed Books, London.

Richard, J and P.S.S Sundar Rao, (1999), The Timing of Marriage, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India.

The Anatomy of Terror (June 10, 2011, distributed by Sokwanele). http://www.sokwanele.com/thisiszimbabwe/archives/6800.Available on http://www.africanaristocrat.com/

Swaine, A. with Feeny, T. (2004) A Neglected Perspective: Adolescent Girls' Experiences of the Kosovo Conflict 1999, 63-86 in Boyden, J. and de Berry J. (eds), Children and Youth on the Front Line: Ethnography, Armed Conflict and Displacement, Oxford, Berghahn Books

Simone, DE Beauvoir. (1998) Classic and Contemporary Readings in Sociology, Addison Wesley, Longman Limited, England

Ward, J. and Marsh, M. (2006) Sexual Violence Against Women and Girls in War and
Its Aftermath: Realities, Responses, and Required Resources, Briefing Paper, New York.

UNICEF (2009) The big picture. Issues addressed under Child Protection. Available from:
http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_bigpicture.html

UN. (2007). The millennium Development Goals, Report 2007. New York. Retrieved November 12,2008 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/mdg2007.

Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTATS) ,Zimbabwe Multiple Indicator Monitoring Survey (MIMS) 2009 report August