Percutaneous extracorporeal arteriovenous CO2 removal for severe respiratory failure

Percutaneous extracorporeal arteriovenous CO2 removal for severe respiratory failure Joseph B. Zwischenberger, Steven A. Conrad, Scott K. Alpard, Laurie R. Grier and Akhil Bidani Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:181-187

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The Annals of Thoracic Surgery is the official journal of The Society of Thoracic Surgeons and the Southern Thoracic Surgical Association. Copyright © 1999 by The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Print ISSN: 0003-4975; eISSN: 1552-6259.

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ORIGINAL ARTICLES: GENERAL THORACIC

Percutaneous Extracorporeal Arteriovenous CO2 Removal for Severe Respiratory Failure Joseph B. Zwischenberger, MD, Steven A. Conrad, MD, PhD, Scott K. Alpard, MD, Laurie R. Grier, MD, and Akhil Bidani, MD, PhD Departments of Surgery, Medicine, and Radiology, University of Texas Medical Branch and Shriners Burns Institute, Galveston, Texas; and Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Louisiana State University Medical Center, Shreveport, Louisiana

Background. In previous animal studies, arteriovenous CO2 removal (AVCO2R) achieved significant reduction in ventilator pressures and improvement in the PaO2 to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio during severe respiratory failure. For our initial clinical experience, 5 patients were approved for treatment of severe respiratory failure and CO2 retention to evaluate the feasibility and safety of percutaneous AVCO2R. Methods. Patients were anticoagulated with heparin (activated clotting time, 260 to 300 seconds), underwent percutaneous femoral cannulation (10F to 12F arterial and 12F to 15F venous catheters), and then were connected to a low-resistance, 2.5-m2 hollow-fiber oxygenator for 72 hours. Results. Mean AVCO2R flow at 24, 48, and 72 hours was 837.4 ⴞ 73.9, 873 ⴞ 83.6, and 750 ⴞ 104.5 mL/min,

respectively, with no vascular complications and no significant change in heart rate or mean arterial pressure. Removal of CO2 plateaued at an AVCO2R flow of 1086 mL/min with 208 mL/min CO2 removed. Average CO2 transfer at 24 and 48 hours was 142 ⴞ 17 and 129 ⴞ 16 mL/min. Use of AVCO2R allowed a significant decrease in minute ventilation from 7.2 ⴞ 2.3 L/min at baseline to 3.4 ⴞ 0.8 L/min at 24 hours. Conclusions. All patients survived the experimental period without adverse sequelae. Percutaneous AVCO2R can achieve approximately 70% CO2 removal in adults with severe respiratory failure and CO2 retention without hemodynamic compromise or instability.

D

and intracranial pressure unless arterial pH is controlled [6, 9]. We have previously shown, in a smoke inhalation model of severe ARDS in adult sheep, that arteriovenous carbon dioxide removal (AVCO2R) allows significant reductions in ventilator pressures without the need for hypercapnia or the complex circuitry and monitoring required for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) [10]. At a shunt flow of up to 29% of cardiac output, AVCO2R did not significantly change cardiac output [11] or compromise organ blood flow [12]. We have also shown that arterial percutaneous cannulas of 10F or larger allow adequate blood flow to achieve nearly total CO2 removal without incurring hypercapnia in adult sheep [13, 14]. In this study we evaluated the initial safety and feasibility of percutaneous AVCO2R in adults with severe respiratory failure and CO2 retention.

espite recent advances in critical care, the overall mortality of adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) remains approximately 40% to 50% [1]. Until recently, ARDS was treated primarily with mechanical ventilation aimed at restoring normal blood gases by aggressive volume-controlled ventilation and high (⬎ 50%) oxygen concentration while the lungs were recovering from the initial injury or disease process. Volume-controlled ventilation, however, causes iatrogenic injury to the lungs, exacerbating ARDS by inflicting barotrauma and volume trauma [2, 3] to both the injured and uninjured portions of the lung. To reduce the high airway pressures and associated trauma, recent trends in ventilator management limit inflation pressure and tidal volume at the cost of a rise in systemic arterial carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. This technique, termed permissive hypercapnia, using low tidal volumes and low-pressure pulmonary ventilation, reduces the incidence of barotrauma and volume trauma and possibly improves survival in ARDS [4 – 8]. Unfortunately, permissive hypercapnia is limited by respiratory acidosis causing substantial changes in hemodynamics, organ blood flow, Presented at the Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Southern Thoracic Surgical Association, Orlando, FL, Nov 12–14, 1998. Address reprint requests to Dr Zwischenberger, Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0528; e-mail: [email protected]

(Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:181–7) © 1999 by The Society of Thoracic Surgeons

Material and Methods Our purpose was to evaluate the safety and feasibility of percutaneous AVCO2R in patients with severe respiratory failure and CO2 retention, in a collaborative study between the University of Texas Medical Branch and Louisiana State University Medical Center. For this initial experience, we selected patients with unresponsive, severe ARDS with CO2 retention despite maximum medical management using the lung protective strategy of

© 1999 by The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Published by Elsevier Science Inc

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“permissive hypercapnia.” These patients were either not eligible for or had failed other therapies including inhaled nitric oxide, high-frequency ventilation, prone positioning, partial liquid ventilation, or ECMO. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at each institution, and informed consent was obtained before each study. We applied a commercially available, low-resistance oxygenator (Affinity, Avecor Cardiovascular, Plymouth, MN) to a femoral-femoral arteriovenous shunt by means of percutaneous access. The AVCO2R technique includes a femoral-femoral arteriovenous shunt using 10F to 12F arterial and 12F to 15F venous percutaneous cannulas introduced by a modified Seldinger technique. The Affinity oxygenator was chosen for CO2 removal because of its low-resistance blood flow characteristics. The Affinity membrane oxygenator was primed with normal saline and connected to the vascular cannulas after removing all the air. The patients were systemically anticoagulated with heparin to maintain an activated clotting time (Hemochron 400, International Technidyne, Edison, NJ) between 260 and 300 seconds throughout the study. The AVCO2R blood flow was monitored by an ultrasonic flow probe (model H6X, Transonic Systems, Ithaca, NY) placed on the arterial cannula and interfaced with a real-time flowmeter (model HT 109, Transonic Systems) with digital display. The AVCO2R blood flow was always at the maximum flow achieved by the arteriovenous pressure gradient. Sweep gas flow (100% oxygen) was controlled by an in-line regulator and set at 2 to 4 times AVCO2R blood flow. Removal of CO2 by the device was calculated as the product of sweep gas flow and its exhaust CO2 concentration measured by an in-line capnometer (SaraTrans, Lenexa, KS). Removal of CO2 by the native lungs was calculated as the product of minute ventilation and the CO2 concentration in the expired gas collected in a Douglas bag. Blood and expired gases were measured with a blood gas system (System BG3 and Co-Oximeter 482, Instrumentation Laboratory, Lexington, MA). The ventilator tidal volume or pressure control and respiratory rate were decreased as determined by the investigators at each participating institution. The goal of ventilator management was to decrease the peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) below 35 cm H2O and continue permissive hypercapnia yet keep the pH greater than 7.2. Each patient had one-on-one nursing care in an intensive care unit. The patients received AVCO2R for 72 hours, then were returned to mechanical ventilation for total gas exchange while continuing a lung-protective strategy with permissive hypercapnia.

Results All patients were successfully cannulated for AVCO2R at the bedside. Patient number 1 (Table 1) had 10F arterial and 12F venous cannulas, which allowed only 600 mL/ min of arteriovenous shunt flow. The subsequent patients, numbers 2 through 5, had 12F arterial and 15F venous cannulas inserted for an average arteriovenous

Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:181–7

shunt flow of 940 mL/min. All patients completed the 72-hour trial, and 3 of 5 were discharged from the hospital. At 48 hours, a review of AVCO2R performance demonstrated that AVCO2R blood flow ranged from 600 to 1100 mL/min. Figure 1 shows total CO2 production simultaneous with CO2 removal by the AVCO2R circuit. Total CO2 production decreased from 200 mL/min to approximately 125 mL/min as CO2 removal closely paralleled production and ranged from 75 to 150 mL/min (60% to 85% of CO2 production). Figure 2 shows that Paco2 at baseline was approximately 95 mm Hg and, on initiation of AVCO2R, decreased to 70 mm Hg and was maintained at that average. Likewise, AVCO2R removed approximately 70% of total CO2 production throughout the 72 hours of the study. Changes in tidal volume, minute ventilation, and PIP during the 72 hours of AVCO2R are shown in Figure 3. The changes in ventilator parameters (average, n ⫽ 5) from baseline to 48 hours included a decrease in tidal volume from 416 to 284 mL, a decrease in PIP from 33 to 29 cm H2O, a decrease in minute ventilation from 7.2 to 4.6 L/min, and a decrease in respiratory rate from 17 to 14 breaths per minute. Two patients improved during the 72 hours with decreased fraction of inspired oxygen requirements. The Pao2 to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio (Fig 4) at 72 hours of AVCO2R reflects the rapid improvement of some (patients 2 and 4; eventual survivors) and deterioration of others. Rapid improvement was noted in patient 2 (152.5 at baseline to 260.0 at 64 hours) and patient 4 (137.5 at 8 hours to 260.0 at 72 hours); both patients survived and were eventually discharged. Deterioration was noted in patient 1 (94.3 at baseline to 71.6 at 72 hours) and patient 5 (89.0 at baseline to 72.0 at 72 hours); both patients eventually died. Patient 3 (92.8 at baseline to 72.7 at 72 hours) had a prolonged course but ultimately survived and was discharged from the hospital. Throughout the 72 hours, the heart rate and mean arterial pressure did not significantly change (Fig 5). No major complications or adverse events were attributable to the AVCO2R circuit. Two minor complications were noted: (1) an oxygenator thrombosis noted by decreased gas exchange, and (2) cannula-site bleeding that could be controlled with a pressure bag. Patients were weaned from AVCO2R after 72 hours. Individual patient data are summarized in Table 1.

Comment For many years, mechanical ventilation attempted to simulate the normal respiratory cycle, targeting normal blood gases while using tidal volumes of 10 to 15 mL/kg. Conventional mechanical ventilation with high tidal volumes and high PIP causes iatrogenic lung injury in the setting of severe respiratory failure [3]. Kolobow and associates [15] reported that positive airway pressure ventilation with high peak pressures and tidal volumes increases vascular filtration pressures and causes stress fractures of the capillary endothelium, epithelium, and basement membrane. This leads to leakage of fluid,

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15.4 59

RR

MV (L/min)

PIP (cm H2O)

Downloaded from ats.ctsnetjournals.org by on May 29, 2013 140 80.6

CO2 removal (mL/min)

CO2 removal (% CO2 production)

48 hrs

.55

18

1.9

8

240

77

119

69.3

144

1098

207.9

136.4

75/97/7.22

Survived

152.5

61/81/7.36

.40

30

8.5

23

370

81

123

Abx, NO, prone

sepsis/bowel perforation

BL

Patient 2 48 hrs

48 hrs

COPD exacerbation

BL

Patient 4

.50

23

5.0

12

280

88

104

59.5

78

840

131.0

104.0

52/62/7.38

Survived

92.8

65/90/7.27

.70

30

5.4

15

350

95

124

.30

13

6.1

18

340

105

110

75.6

112

820

148.1

230.0

69/38/7.49

Survived

180.0

63/71/7.28

.35

13

3.7

8

470

93

89

Abx, mechanical ventilation Bipap, mechanical ventilation

restrictive lung disease

BL

Patient 3

48 hrs

89.0

Died

89/123/6.95

1.00

33

2.8

6

390

90

121

84.6

170

998

201.0

69.4

59/45/7.38

.85

36

3.0

8

300

133

79

Abx, mechanical ventilation, permissive hypercapnia

sepsis/pneumonia

BL

Patient 5

ABG ⫽ arterial blood gas; Abx ⫽ antibiotics; ARDS ⫽ adult respiratory distress syndrome; AVCO2R ⫽ arteriovenous CO2 removal; Bipap ⫽ non-invasive bi-nasal positive airway HR ⫽ heart rate; MAP ⫽ mean arterial pressure; MV ⫽ minute ventilation; NO ⫽ nitric pressure; COPD ⫽ chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Fio2 ⫽ fraction of inspired oxygen; oxide; PIP ⫽ peak inspiratory pressure; Qb ⫽ shunt flow; RR ⫽ respiratory rate; TV ⫽ tidal volume.

Died

609

Outcome

173.8

74.4

Qb (mL/min)

94.3

66/103/7.27 67/110/7.30

.90

55

6.8

25

260

90

98

Total CO2 production (mL/min)

Pao2/Fio2

ABG (Po2/Pco2/pH)

.70

34

TV (mL/min)

Fio2

73 500

MAP (mm Hg)

120

HR

Abx, NO, prone

Other treatments

48 hrs

sepsis/pneumonia

BL

ARDS cause

Variables

Patient 1

Table 1. Patient Data at Baseline and After 48 Hours of AVCO2R

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Fig 1. Total CO2 production simultaneous with CO2 removal by the arteriovenous CO2 removal (AVCO2R) circuit. Production of CO2 ranged from 203.4 ⫾ 54.5 to 128.2 ⫾ 14.3 mL/min as CO2 removal closely paralleled production and ranged from 136.2 ⫾ 48.4 to 77.4 ⫾ 16.1 mL/min.

protein, blood, and air, resulting in pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, atelectasis, pneumatoceles, or pneumothorax [16]. Healthy dogs ventilated with PIP of 30 cm H2O for as little as 2 hours show lung damage (atelectasis, alveolar edema, and hemorrhage) [17]. Tsuno and coworkers [2] ventilated pigs at a PIP of 40 cm H2O for 24 hours and found histologic changes similar to those seen in early stages of respiratory failure. When volume-controlled ventilation is used in patients with ARDS, the risk of regional lung overdistention is high, because tidal volumes used to maintain normal blood gases invariably inflict high PIPs to the small fraction of compliant lung capable of gas exchange [16]. To minimize volume distention of healthy alveoli and potentiation of the lung injury [16, 18], pressure-limited ventilation techniques have been proposed. In a prospective, randomized clinical trial [7], patients treated with pressure-limited ventilation had a more rapid increase in static lung compliance and normalization of blood Pco2 than those with volume-controlled ventilation. Such

Fig 2. At baseline Paco2 was 93.6 ⫾ 9.0 mm Hg and decreased to 69.0 ⫾ 10.0 mm Hg on initiation of arteriovenous CO2 removal (AVCO2R). Arteriovenous CO2 removal removed approximately 70% of total CO2 production throughout the 72 hours of the study.

Fig 3. Changes in airway pressures from baseline to 48 hours included a decrease in tidal volume from 416.0 ⫾ 29.3 to 284.0 ⫾ 17.2 mL, a decrease in peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) from 33.0 ⫾ 7.4 to 29.0 ⫾ 7.5 cm H2O, and a decrease in minute ventilation from 7.2 ⫾ 2.3 to 4.6 ⫾ 0.9 L/min. (AVCO2R ⫽ arteriovenous CO2 removal.)

changes in ventilator strategies to avoid high airway pressures may contribute to the lower mortality recently reported in patients with ARDS [4, 5, 8]. Limiting PIP, and therefore tidal volume depending on lung compliance, may not provide adequate minute ventilation to excrete the produced CO2 and leads to an increase in systemic Paco2, termed permissive hypercapnia. Use of ECMO provides complete gas exchange and improves survival in neonates [19], pediatric patients [20], and selected adult patients [21, 22]. More than 10,000 cases of ECMO to date reveal an 81% survival in neonates, 49% in children, and 38% in adults in patient populations estimated to have a greater than 80% mortality [22]. Treatment with ECMO, however, involves intensive monitoring, high cost in labor and equipment, and frequent complications [23, 24]. Targeting CO2 re-

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Fig 4. Ratio of Pao2 to fraction of inspired oxygen (Pao2/Fio2) of all patients throughout the 72-hour study. (AVCO2R ⫽ arteriovenous CO2 removal.)

moval, Kolobow and colleagues [25] developed the venovenous extracorporeal technique of extracorporeal CO2 removal in animals. Gattinoni and associates [26] also reported that low-frequency ventilation combined with extracorporeal CO2 removal provided sufficient gas exchange and improved survival in patients with ARDS. Although extracorporeal CO2 removal was effective in reducing ventilatory requirements, extracorporeal CO2 removal is essentially low-flow venovenous ECMO and has all the inherent disadvantages. Arteriovenous CO2 removal was developed to minimize the foreign surface interactions and blood element shear stress inherent in an extracorporeal circuit with a pump and allow a gas exchange membrane of sufficient surface area for nearly total CO2 removal. Barthelemy and associates [27] initially achieved significant CO2 removal using a large membrane in a pumpless circuit with flows in the range of 1200 to 2000 mL/min. More recently, Young and colleagues [28] evaluated AVCO2R in animals in both a pumped and a pumpless circuit with a large oxygenator membrane and found that despite excellent CO2 removal, resistance was a limiting factor at low flow rates. To evaluate the potential long-term use of AVCO2R, Awad and coworkers [29] demonstrated the feasibility of chronic arteriovenous support for 7 days in awake normal sheep without sequelae. However, the major limitation of all these studies was high circuit resistance. Recent developments in computational fluid dynamics led to a newly designed low-resistance oxygenator commercially available as the Affinity oxygenator [30]. We selected this low-resistance gas exchanger to use with percutaneous arterial and venous cannulas matched to the flow ranges necessary for total CO2 removal during ARDS induced by severe smoke inhalation and cutaneous flame burn injury in adult sheep [14]. The extremely low resistance of the circuit and gas exchanger (⬍ 10 mm Hg) allowed a blood flow of up to 13% of the

Fig 5. Throughout the 72-hour study, the heart rate and mean arterial pressure did not significantly change despite the arteriovenous shunt. Heart rate ranged from 97.4 ⫾ 3.7 to 115.4 ⫾ 6.6 beats/min and mean arterial pressure ranged from 81.6 ⫾ 2.4 to 98.6 ⫾ 9.7 mm Hg. (AVCO2R ⫽ arteriovenous CO2 removal.)

cardiac output at a mean arterial blood pressure of 90 mm Hg [31]. During this initial patient experience, AVCO 2 R achieved approximately 870 mL/min of flow with a transdevice pressure gradient of consistently less than 10 mm Hg to achieve approximately 70% CO2 removal of measured CO2 production. All patients on AVCO2R achieved either a decrease in ventilator pressures (patients 1 through 3) or a decrease in Paco2 (patients 3 through 5) depending on the management strategy. Use of AVCO2R in patient 1 was associated with an immediate reduction in ventilator requirements and peak airway pressure. Although arterial Pco2 ranged from 99 to 121 mm Hg during AVCO2R support, it was still significantly less than it would be without AVCO2R, as evidenced by a rapid increase of Pco2 to 214 mm Hg immediately after removal of the cannulas. In patient 2, CO2 removal up to 208 mL/min, or 94% CO2 production, was achieved under conditions of moderate hypercapnia. This patient and those subsequent tolerated the 12F arterial cannula without vascular complications. We now

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recommend a 12F or larger arterial cannula to achieve shunt flows capable of adequate CO2 removal during periods of high CO2 production. Although CO2 removal was consistent, as shown in Figures 1 and 2, the impact of AVCO2R on oxygen transfer was patient dependent. Removal of CO2 allowed reductions in barotrauma and volume trauma from the ventilator; however, the Pao2 to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio best reflected patient improvement or deterioration during ARDS as shown in Figure 4. In our large animal model of ARDS induced by a smoke inhalation and cutaneous burn injury [32], the Pao2 to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio showed significant improvement during AVCO2R [33]. We speculate this improvement in arterial oxygenation with AVCO2R is likely caused by two separate effects. With resolution of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema associated with the lung injury, one would expect a decrement in the right-to-left shunt fraction. Second, the use of AVCO2R would be expected to improve the central mixed venous oxygen tensions because of the admixture of well-oxygenated blood from AVCO2R mixing with the venous return to the right atrium. Percutaneous AVCO2R involves much simpler monitoring and maintenance than conventional ECMO. Our technique of AVCO2R still requires systemic anticoagulation with heparin, increasing the risk of bleeding. Heparin-coated or biopassive circuits and gas exchangers may decrease the blood–foreign surface interactions and decrease the need for anticoagulation. Management issues encountered throughout this feasibility study include two minor complications: (1) an oxygenator thrombosis that required oxygenator change-out, and (2) cannula-site bleeding that could be controlled with a pressure bag. Questions encountered throughout the study included the range of heparin dosing that was ideal for this type of circuit, cannula size selection that would allow minimal access to the femoral artery and vein with adequate blood flow, and best ventilator management in the presence of 70% to 75% CO2 removal by the AVCO2R circuit. We conclude, from our initial clinical experience, that percutaneous AVCO2R is feasible with only minor complications and achieves approximately 70% CO2 removal in adults with severe respiratory failure and CO2 retention to allow decreased barotrauma and volume trauma without hemodynamic compromise. In the future, we will conduct large animal prospective, randomized survival studies of AVCO2R to evaluate ideal heparin dosing, heparin-coated circuits, and biopassive-coated circuits. Human prospective, randomized, clinical trials will address populations of patients with ARDS with CO2 retention, severe smoke inhalation and burn-associated ARDS, and CO2 retention syndromes to avoid intubation.

Supported in part by the Constance Marsili Shafer Research Fund and Avecor Cardiovascular, Inc.

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DISCUSSION DR GEOFFREY M. GRAEBER (Morgantown, WV): When you had those patients and they continued for a longer period of time, since you were removing about 70% of the CO2, did you notice a progressive increase in the concentration of CO2 in the blood, and if you did, were you able to manage it at a steady level over time? DR ZWISCHENBERGER: As you would expect, for the 3 patients who survived, the 72-hour window of AVCO2R seemed to buy them decreased barotrauma and decreased ventilator exposure that could exacerbate lung injury. We were able to maintain lower ventilator settings for both peak inspiratory pressure and minute ventilation yet maintain Paco2 at levels below pre-

© 1999 by The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Published by Elsevier Science Inc

AVCO2R. The 2 patients who eventually died were end-stage ARDS. During AVCO2R, their Paco2 and pH were stable but became unstable immediately after stopping AVCO2R. The entry criteria were designed to identify patients at the end of therapy—after every other effort had been made to treat their ARDS. As a result, we were really surprised that any patient survived. DR GRAEBER: So, obviously, the ideal application would come earlier in the course of ARDS after verification in prospective, randomized clinical trials. DR ZWISCHENBERGER: Yes.

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Percutaneous extracorporeal arteriovenous CO2 removal for severe respiratory failure Joseph B. Zwischenberger, Steven A. Conrad, Scott K. Alpard, Laurie R. Grier and Akhil Bidani Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:181-187 Updated Information & Services

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