Luis Blanco, "Strategic Partnership: a new form of association in International Relations". Available from http://www.wiscnetwork.org/porto2011/papers/WISC_2011-523.pdf (accessed on May 18, 2014).
The Somali coastline of about 3,025 km is the longest in mainland Africa and the Middle East. Through its territorial waters passes about 33,000 commercial ships every year. These ships carry 26% of global oil trade and 14-15% of the international trade with the cost of $1.8 trillion annually
Abdullahi, Abdurahman. "Perspectives on the State Collapse in Somalia," in
Somalia at the Crossroads: Challenges and Perspectives in Reconstituting a Failed State, ed. Abdullahi A. Osman and Issaka K. Soure, London: Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd., 2007.
StigJarle Hansen, Al-Shabaab in Somalia: The History and Ideology of a Militant Islamist Group 2005-2012 (Oxford University Press, 2013).
These countries are Bulgaria, Greece, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan, Iraq and Syria. The four seas bordering Turkey are the Mediterranean Sea, the Aegean Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Marmara.
House of Commons Library, "Turkey Today,"(Research Paper 08/90, 8 December 2008).
This statistic was released by Global Humanitarian Assistance Report 2013. See The Guardian, "Turkey gives $1bn in humanitarian aid but global funding gap grows," (available athttp://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/jul/17/turkey-humanitarian-aid-somalia-pakistan, accessed on July 15, 2014).
BBC News, "Somalia Famine: Turkish PM Erdogan visits Mogadishu, August 19, 2011," (available from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14588960, accessed on May 15, 2014).
Pinar Tank, "Turkish Humanitarian Approach in Somalia," (Policy Brief, Norwegian Peace-building Resource Center, December, 2013). Also, Jason Straziuso, "Correction: Somalia-Death Story". Associated Press, May. 6, 2013. Available from http://bigstory.ap.org/article/apnewsbreak-report-260000-died-somali-famine (assessed on July 29, 2014).
Abdurahman Abdullahi, "The Islamic movement in Somalia: A Historical Evolution with the Case Study of Islah Movement (1950-2000),"(PhD thesis submitted to McGill University, 2011), 53.
Mohamed Omar, The Scramble in the Horn of Africa: History of Somalia 1827–1977 (Mogadishu: Somali Publishers, 2001), 28.
Pankhurst, Sylvia. Ex-Italian Somaliland. (London: Watts, 1951), 92-93. Also, Mohamed Abdullahi Rirash, "The Effects of Sixteenth Century Upheavals on the History of the Horn, 1988), 255. (Available from http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/1026/5/34_M.%20A.%20RIRASH%20-%20Effects%20of%20sixteenth%20century%20upheavals%20on%20the%20history%20of%20the%20horn.pdf, accessed on May 15, 2014).
On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta carried out a coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece and Turkish army invaded the island. See also, From Selected Works of Mahmet Ozkan and Birol Akgun. "Turkey's Opening to Africa, "Journal of Modern African Studies, 48, 4, 2010, 525–546 (available from http://works.bepress.com/mehmetozkan/86, accessed on May 13, 2014).
Karen Kaya and Jason Warner, "Turkey and Africa: A Rising Military Partnership?", October, 2012, 3(available from http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/Turkey-Africa.pdf, accessed on May 16, 2014).
Mehmet Ozkan, "Turkish Rising Role in Africa."Turkish Policy Quarterly. Volume 9 Number 5, 1999(available from http://turkishpolicy.com/dosyalar/files/MehmetOzkan-TurkeysRisingRoleinAfrica.pdf, accessed on May 17, 2014).
United States Forces, "Somalia after Action Report and Historical Review the United States Army in Somalia 1992-1994".
Crisis Group interview, Abdirizak Adan, chief of staff of President Abdullahi Yusuf, Nairobi, May 2012.note 7, International Crisis Group, "Policy Briefing: Assessing Turkish Role in Somalia." (Africa Briefing N°92, Nairobi/Istanbul/Brussels, 8 October 2012).
BBC News, "Istanbul Conference on Somalia Opens." (Available from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18275703, accessed on May 17, 2014).
ICG, Policy Briefing: Assessing Turkish Role, 2
IHH emphasize the idea of voluntary and officially trying to give support to anyone suffering from disease or poverty. According to their slogan, 'despite of the fast-changing circumstances of today's world, the unchangeable, everlasting values must be maintained'. See www.IHH.org.tr.
"No one can speak of peace, justice and civilization in the world if the outcry rising from Somalia is left unheard.…We have collected a donation of about $300 million within the last two months. …We also organized an emergency meeting of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation in Istanbul and the amount of pledges made on this occasion exceeded $350 million… It is our greatest wish that the leadership demonstrated by Turkey in this direction will set an example for the entire international community". "Address by Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey to the general debate of the 66th session of the UN General Assembly", New York, 22 September 2012. See note 12, ICG, Policy briefing: Assessing Turkish Role, 3.
Turkish-Somali Business Forum, Istanbul, Turkey, May 21-26, 2013 (available from http://www.thesomalicouncil.org/programs/turkey/Turkish.pdf, accessed on May 17, 2014).
See Hiiraan online. Available from http://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2014/Jun/55297/global_somali_diaspora_conference_day_1_motion_passed.aspx#sthash.INjpVRfu.dpbs, Accessed on July 15, 2014).
Sabahionle, "Turkish orphanage in Banadir to care for 1,200 Somali children", March 30, 2012 ( available from http://sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2012/03/30/newsbrief-08, accessed on May 17, 2014).
Alpaslan Ozerdem, "How Turkey is emerging as a development partner in Africa." The Guardian Professional, April 10, 2013.
Directorate of the religious affairs is the official state institution dealing with the Islamic affairs. See http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/en/home (accessed on May 17, 2014).
Today's Zaman, "Turkey reaffirms commitment to assist Somalia", March 06, 2012 (available from http://www.todayszaman.com/news-273437-turkey-reaffirms-commitment-to-assist-somalia.html, accessed on May 17, 2014).
Ibid.
Horseed Media, "Somalia: Turkey to build a new large hospital in Puntland." (Available from http://som.horseedmedia.net/2014/02/somalia-turkey-build-new-large-hospital-puntland/, accessed on May 17, 2014).
This agreement was officially signed on October, 2012. See "Agreement Between the Government of the Republic of Turkey and the Government of the Republic of Somalia on Military Training Cooperation." (Available from http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/10/20121010-4-1.pdf, accessed on May 17, 2014).
Sabahionline, "Somalia, Turkey sign bilateral military agreement."(Available from http://sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2014/02/28/newsbrief-03, accessed on May 17, 2014).
The Heritage Institute for Policy Studies, "Policy Briefing, the Somalia-Somaliland Negotiations". Available from http://gallery.mailchimp.com/19679cf7708fe9b4e9f72c846/files/HIPS_Briefing_003_2013_ENGLISH.pdf ( accessed on May 16, 2014).
Somalia's land boundaries is 2,366 km, bordering Djibouti 58 km, Ethiopia 1,626 km, Kenya 682 km.
Turkic Speaking countries have established Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States (CCTS) in 2009. This organization has a membership of four Turkic speaking states. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are not still a member.
http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/
Government of Somalia, "Draft discussion paper for Round Table Transport infrastructure,"(Istanbul conference on Somalia 21 – 23 May 2010).
Prospects for Somalia-Turkey Strategic Partnership " 20
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Prospects for Somali-Turkish Strategic PartnershipProspects for Somali-Turkish Strategic Partnership
Prospects for Somali-Turkish
Strategic Partnership
Prospects for Somali-Turkish
Strategic Partnership
Dr. Abdurahman Abdullahi (Baadiyow Dr. Abdurahman Abdullahi (Baadiyow 2014Mogadishu-Somaliawww.abdurahmanba@
[email protected]
Dr. Abdurahman Abdullahi (Baadiyow
Dr. Abdurahman Abdullahi (Baadiyow
2014
Mogadishu-Somalia
[email protected]
2014
Mogadishu-Somalia
[email protected]
Abstract
This paper posits that recovering Somalia and rising Turkey have great potential for establishing strategic partnerships. It explores historical relations of the two countries, their current multi-sector cooperation, and enabling factors for strategic partnership. It proposes five priority areas on which strategic partnership between the two countries can be advanced such as security, coastal and marine resource development, transportation and infrastructure, health and education, and trade and financial sectors. However, in order to ensure the success of such strategic partnership, Somali state institutions and political institutions should be invigorated, democracy promoted and the Turkish economic model that suits Somali context should be adopted for mutual benefit.
Introduction
Strategic partnership can be defined as a "cooperative relationship between two countries that share the desire to reach common high-priority goals". The term has replaced more conventional terminologies such as partnerships, alliances, free trade agreements, cooperation and special relationships. Somalia is a collapsed Muslim state undergoing a post-transition recovery period. It is situated in the strategic Horn of Africa, which has long attracted competing global powers. The strategic geographical location, which could be an asset for Somalia, has instead become a liability by attracting multiple colonial and Cold War superpower rivalries. Moreover, since the onset of the millennium, piracy has flourished along the Somali coast and terrorism has gained a foothold in the large swaths of Somalia, threatening the whole region of the Greater Horn of Africa and beyond. This situation has prompted presence of the international naval forces in the Somali territorial waters and African Union Forces (AMISOM) in the inland to fight piracy and terrorist insurgency (Al-Shabaab) respectively.
Against all these impediments, the Somali people have remained resilient, responding to the challenges with characteristic inventiveness and endurance and creating robust private sector in the last two decades. The Somali private sector has been growing, especially trade, transport, remittance services and telecommunications. Moreover, Somalia's abundant reserves of natural resources such oil, natural gas and mineral deposits remain untapped, and its long coast along the Indian Ocean, with bountiful marine resources, is yet to be exploited. Still, despite all these potential sources of fortune, the Somali economy is in complete disarray, suffering from destroyed physical, human and social capital, distorted economic incentives, widespread poverty, massive unemployment, endemic corruption and criminal networks plundering national resources. Despite the challenges, a conducive environment for reconstructing Somalia has now been laid down; namely, the political and legal framework established after the incumbent Somali government was recognized internationally in January 2013.
On the other hand, Turkey is a rising regional power strategically at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, connecting East and West. It borders eight countries and four seas. It controls the Straits of Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the nexus that bridges between the rich natural resources of the Caspian basin in Central Asia and the Western world. The rise to power of the AK Party in 2002 offered impetus for Turkey's growing soft power, directed primarily at those countries under the historical rule of Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the Caucasus and Africa. Turkey has the largest military in Europe and the second largest in NATO. Its economy is strong, and is the sixteenth largest economy in the world and the seventh largest in Europe, a fact that propelled its inclusion in the G20. Turkey has also become a prominent humanitarian power, contributing more than $1 billion in aid in 2012. This makes it the fourth-largest government donor behind only the US ($3.8bn), the EU ($1.9bn), and the UK ($1.2bn).
Over the last few years, Turkey vastly increased its role in world affairs, giving priority to trade and humanitarian interventions. In particular, Turkey has invigorated its cultural roots and historical connection with the countries previously ruled by the Ottoman Empire. In line with this policy objective, the historical and cultural link between Somalia and Turkey has been revived and Turkish presence in Somalia became highly visible. Turkish interest in bolstering its relations with Somalia has culminated in the historic visit of Turkish Prime Minister Tayyib Erdogan in August 2011 at the height of the famine that killed an estimated 260.000 people. Somali people highly welcomed and expressed gratitude for brotherly Turkish humanitarian intervention and consider it a reliable partner, being a Muslim and democratic state. Consequently, Somalia jumped rapidly into the top three states receiving Turkish assistance globally and the greatest beneficiary in Africa. Thus, Turkey had been gaining enormous influence in Somalia due to its humanitarian intervention coupled with multi-sector cooperation in education, healthcare, business and reconciliation.
This paper addresses the prospects of Turkish-Somali strategic partnership. It explores the historical relations of the two countries, their current multi-sector cooperation, and enabling factors for strategic partnership. Towards the end, the paper proposes four priority areas on which strategic partnership between the two countries can be advanced.
Historical Background
The first Turkish-Somali contact can be traced back to the Ottoman rule of Sultan Salim I in 1517 after the Ottoman Empire expanded into Egypt and the Red Sea ports of Sawakin and Aden. Ottomans were able to extend their influence from these ports into the Indian Ocean and Northern Somalia Coastal cities up to Cape-Guardfui in current Puntland State of Somalia. The first Turkish involvement in the Horn of Africa occurred during the Muslim-Christian push-pull wars in that region in the 16th century. The Ottomans had allied with the multi-ethnic Muslim Emirate of Adale, which included the northern part of Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Eritrea. Turkey provided 700 troops and various military expertise. However, with the withering of Ottoman power, Egypt which was nominally the Ottoman province, established its presence in the northern Somali ports of Berbera and Zaila. Relics of Ottoman/Egyptian rule, such as water systems and mosques remain in use and can still be seen in the towns of Zaila and Berbera.
Fig. 2. This mosque was built in Zaila during Turkish rule (1559-1867)Fig. 2. This mosque was built in Zaila during Turkish rule (1559-1867)Fig.1.Ottoman Empire Rule in Northern Somalia (1559-1867)Fig.1.Ottoman Empire Rule in Northern Somalia (1559-1867)
Fig. 2. This mosque was built in Zaila during Turkish rule (1559-1867)
Fig. 2. This mosque was built in Zaila during Turkish rule (1559-1867)
Fig.1.Ottoman Empire Rule in Northern Somalia (1559-1867)
Fig.1.Ottoman Empire Rule in Northern Somalia (1559-1867)
Nonetheless, Turkish-African relations have plummeted since 19th century and what little engagement Turkey had with Africa was limited to North Africa. Turkish relations with Africa remained stagnant during the Cold War era and were confined to formal diplomatic ties with few African countries. Turkey and Somalia had kept formal diplomatic relations and both countries became among founding members of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in 1969. Turkey maintained an embassy in Somalia without much visibility before the collapse of the state and the outbreak of the civil war in 1991. Indeed, Turkey was not really involved much in African affairs until recently, when it became aware of the need to improve African relations during the Cyprus crisis of 1974. Even so, serious engagement with Africa was not formulated until 1998 when the new policy called the "African Opening" framework was adopted. However, this policy was not implemented properly until 2002. Later, this policy was expanded when 2005 was declared "the year of Africa".As a result, Turkey leaders visited many African countries and Turkey-African summit was held in Turkey for advancing relations and cooperation.
The active role of Turkey in Somali affairs started in 1993, when Turkey contributed a 320-person mechanized infantry unit reinforced by combat support and three frigates to the UN Operations in Somalia (UNOSOM). Turkish Lieutenant General Cevik Bir commanded the entire UN force from April 1993 to January 1994. Moreover, Turkey's engagement gradually strengthened and the Turkish authorities continued relations with Somalia's Transitional National Government (TNG) instituted in Djibouti in 2000 and its successor, the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) formed in 2004.Prime Minister Erdogan met the late Somali President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed on the sidelines of African Union (AU) summit in Addis Ababa in 2007 and invited him to Turkey, but the proposal was not pursued However, with the improved security situation in Mogadishu in 2011, Turkey became among the first countries to resume formal diplomatic relations with Somalia and reopened its embassy in Mogadishu. Reciprocally, Somalia had also established its diplomatic mission in Turkey on August, 2012.
Turkey also provided rotating commander for the multilateral Combined Task Force aimed at fighting Somali piracy in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Moreover, Turkey hosted the Emergency Ministerial Meeting of the OIC's executive committee on Somalia in 2011, in which $350 million were pledged to counter the Somalia famine. Also, the Istanbul Conference on Somalia, in which world leaders, Somali civil society and clan elders participated, was held in May 2012. Finally, leaders of the two countries had exchanged visits. Prime Minister Erdogan visited Mogadishu in August 2011 and President Sheikh Sharif and incumbent president Hassan Sheikh have made several trips to Istanbul. Rooted in cultural and historical linkages, Turkey-Somali relations show great promise to flourish, so that Turkey is seen by the Somali people "as a country to emulate, rather than an external power to be feared".
A Strong Beginning for Lasting Cooperation
Turkey as a rising regional power has shifted its policy from identifying solely with the West to reviving its historical roots in the Middle East, Muslim World and Africa, a change that has helped define Somalia-Turkey relations. Turkish policy became multi-tiered, including humanitarian, military, social, economic and infrastructure as well as peace and reconciliation. It also diversified to encompass all Somali regions such as South-Central, Puntland and Somaliland. This cooperation began strongly during the famine of 2011 when Turkey hosted the UN-sponsored Istanbul Conference on Somalia and the Turkish people donated more than $300 million to combat famine. Turkish humanitarian and developmental intervention in Somalia has garnered great publicity because it has worked on the ground with its own institutions, including the Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency (TIKA), the Turkish Red Crescent (KIZILAY) and the Directorate of Religious Affairs (DIANET). There are currently 12 Turkish agencies including state and non-state institutions taking part in the humanitarian and developmental projects in Somalia. The Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists of Turkey (TUSKON) and the Humanitarian Relief Foundation (IHH) are the two main Turkish NGOs that have taken a leading role in promoting this program in Africa.
Fig 3. Historic Visit of the Turkish PM, Erdogan in Somalia on Aug 19, 2011Fig 3. Historic Visit of the Turkish PM, Erdogan in Somalia on Aug 19, 2011
Fig 3. Historic Visit of the Turkish PM, Erdogan in Somalia on Aug 19, 2011
Fig 3. Historic Visit of the Turkish PM, Erdogan in Somalia on Aug 19, 2011
In the humanitarian intervention, the Humanitarian Relief Foundation (IHH) called the world's attention to famine after receiving calls from Somalis in April 2011 asking for assistance. Turkey called an emergency meeting of OIC member states during which $350 million was collected to help with the famine efforts. The visit of Prime Minister Erdogan which was accompanied by his family and more than 200 political, business and cultural elite publicized the suffering of the Somali people. The visit was well-timed, taking place during the month of Ramadan when Muslims around the world take a step back from their daily routines and focus on community, charity, fasting, and prayer. Moreover, "on 22 September 2011, Erdogan allocated half of his UN General Assembly speech to Somalia, speaking passionately about the suffering of its people and how Turkey intended to play a leadership role in resolving the crisis." Initially, the Turkish Red Crescent set up a camp to accommodate 15,000 Internally Displaced people (IDPs) in Mogadishu and provided meals and health care to its residents on a daily basis besides provision of mosque and soccer field. The Turkish Red Crescent had also built a nursing school and a vocational health school in Mogadishu to train primary health workers. Other institutions also actively participated not only in the humanitarian programs but also in the developmental projects.
Cooperation in trade was also growing and Turkish manufactured goods are competing in the Somali markets and investments in business collective ventures are already on the way. The first Istanbul Conference on Somalia that was held on May 2010 included sector based roundtable discussions on telecommunications, transport infrastructure, livestock/fresh meat, fisheries, banking and remittances and alternative energy. Improved communication and transit links between Mogadishu and Istanbul through direct flights by Turkish Airways have also facilitated connections between business communities from both countries. Moreover, the Second Istanbul Conference on Somalia was held under the theme "Preparing Somalia's Future: Goals for 2015," in June 2012. Continuing the multi-dimensional and multi-layered approach of the first Istanbul Conference, it was attended by high level representatives from 57 countries and 11 international and regional organizations. Also in attendance were the Transitional Federal Government leadership, the regional administrations, and representatives from Somali society including youth, women, business community, elders, religious leaders and the Diaspora. Furthermore, in May 2013, the 1st Turkish-Somali Business Forum was launched in Istanbul to highlight and promote commercial opportunities in both countries. The objective of the forum was to introduce Somali business to the Turkish business sector and their global business initiatives, in order to explore business opportunities and establish networks. The forum was promoted by the Somali and Turkish government ministries. Turkey also had sponsored a first of its kind "Global Somali Diaspora Conference" on June 21-22, 2014 which created an umbrella organization to promote the unity of Somali Diaspora.
Turkish developmental intervention focused particular attention on education and healthcare. In the education sector, the Nile Foundation of Turkey opened the first Turkish High school in the country with the capacity of 700 students. Additionally, the relief organization, Kimse Yok Mu (KYM), built a boarding school for girls, a grammar school, a dormitory and a research hospital with 60 beds in the city center. Moreover, orphanage with the capacity of providing housing for 300 orphans and schooling for 1,200 children was built by the IHH for $2.5 million. Furthermore, the Turkish government provided scholarships for Somali students and as of 2013, there were more than 1,500 Somali students studying in Turkish universities and educational institutions. On the other hand, Turkey offered scholarships to about 400 Somalis for religious training by the DIANET and the Turkish Religious Affairs Foundation. In the healthcare sector, as many as 200,000 Somalis have been treated at Turkish field hospitals and clinics. Four hospitals will be constructed with the support of the Turkish governmental and nongovernmental organizations and will have a capacity of 550 beds. KYM is also spending nearly $10 million renovating Banadir Hospital in Mogadishu, the largest in the country. KYM has also organized regular trips for Turkish doctors to provide medical care to the poor and needy in Somalia. Recently, Turkey has announced plans to build a 400-bed hospital with the cost of $35 million and planning to build hospitals in Puntland and Somaliland.
Fig 4. Digfer Hospital Project built by Turkey in MogadishuFig 4. Digfer Hospital Project built by Turkey in Mogadishu
Fig 4. Digfer Hospital Project built by Turkey in Mogadishu
Fig 4. Digfer Hospital Project built by Turkey in Mogadishu
In the infrastructure development, Turkey has also initiated various infrastructure projects in Somalia, such as rehabilitating the Aden Abdulle International Airport and the National Assembly building. In September 2013, the Turkish company Favori LLC began its operations at the airport aiming to renovate the aviation building and construct a new one. The company announced an investment of $10 million to increase the airport's existing 15-aircraft capacity to 60. Moreover, in October 2013, Somalia approved an agreement with the Turkish firm Al-Bayrak to modernize and manage the Port of Mogadishu for a 20-year period. Turkey has also undertaken a project to repave destroyed roads in Mogadishu, in particular the artery road connecting the airport with the city center.
With respect to military cooperation, the Somali and Turkish governments signed a preliminary military cooperation agreement in May 2010, covering training, technical and scientific cooperation, joint-service exercises between both national militaries and exchanges of delegations and personnel. It also encompasses training by the Turkish Military Medical Academy and Mapping General Command, between the gendarmerie and coast guard, as well as in-field training and education at national military installations and institutions. Additionally, the agreement includes provisions for the mutual exchange of information vis-a-vis military history, publications and museology.A follow up agreement was signed in Mogadishu in February 2014, which stipulates that the government of Turkey will soon launch a training regimen in Somalia for the Somali National Army and builds military academy and training schools.
In the reconciliation and peace-building, Turkey has undertaken initiative to hold a meeting between Somali federal state and Somaliland that declared unilateral separation from Somalia in 1991. In April 2013, reconciliation talks between the central government and Somaliland and mediated by Turkey resulted in a signed agreement between the two leaders, Somali President Hassan Sheikh and President Ahmed Silanyo of Somaliland. The agreement established an understanding to allocate fairly to Somaliland its portion of the development aid earmarked for Somalia as a whole and to cooperate on security issues. The Turkish role in mediating Somali political conflicts is also promising given its high interest, economic soft power and cultural links.
Enabling Factors for Strategic Partnership
Turkey-Somalia relations have great potential to evolve into a strategic partnership. This undertaking is vital for recovering Somalia in its post-transition reconstruction period and for Turkey in its search for markets and cooperation in Africa. The two countries must develop a mutual vision for strategic engagement, principles, goals and objectives in the vital sectors. It is required to lay a legal framework agreement between the two countries. Indeed, the environment is set for strategic partnership based on solid foundations. The two countries share their global geostrategic importance, common Islamic heritage and values, trans-border ethnic extension, huge Diaspora and important location within the Muslim world.
The geographic locations of both countries made them susceptive to global powers' competition for dominance or interests in forging strategic alliances. While Somalia became a pawn for its strategic geography, Turkey forged an alliance with the West and became a strong member of NATO. This distinctive nature of the geography of both countries is an asset to build on their strategic partnership. Moreover, both countries possess strategic depth in their ethnic extension beyond their state borders. Somalia borders Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya, in which about 50% of the Somali ethnic population live as citizens of these countries but keep cultural and commercial connections to Somalia. On the other hand, Turkey extends its connection in the Caucasus and the Central Asian states of Turkic ethno-linguistic zone such as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Additionally, Turkish and Somali people share Islamic heritage and values, belonging to the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation. This common identity, and shared cultural values and principles are crucial factors that enhance trusts and brings enabling environment for strategic partnership. The vast majority of Turkish people are Muslims (97.5%) and the most popular school of law is the Hanafite Madh'hab of Sunni Islam. The secularization of Turkey means that the state is in total control of the religion. As such, the Presidency of Religious Affairs or "DIANET" with its huge state budget allocations controls Islamic affairs and spaces of worship. On the other hand, Somalis are Sunni Muslims adhering to the Shafi'i School of jurisprudence. The Constitution of Somalia defines Islam as the state religion and Islamic Shari' a as the ultimate reference of the laws of the land.
Furthermore, both countries have a comparatively huge Diaspora. There are about six million Turkish individuals, mostly living in Europe. The role of Turkish Diaspora is not limited to the economic sector in contributing to the homeland's economic development though remittances. The Turkish Diaspora's role, besides an economic contribution, had shifted towards contributing to the country's foreign policy objectives in joining the European Union. On the other hand, the Somali Diaspora is a recent phenomenon that has substantially grown in the last two decades, estimated at more than a million people, most of whom live in USA and Europe. Diaspora economic contribution is estimated more than a billion dollars a year. Both communities constitute part of the large Muslim population in the West and may collectively contribute in fostering Muslim-Western relations through constructive dialogue and mutual understanding.
Finally, the two countries represent the true face of the Islamic world, being located at the periphery of the Muslim world where Muslims and Christians interact in many ways. The two countries, therefore, were historically frontier states in defending the heart land of Islam from external invasions and extending its frontiers through various means. The history of Turkey in advancing the Islamic cause during the reign of the Ottoman Empire is well recorded in history. On the other hand, Somalia is the place where the Islamic identity took prominence and the Christian-Muslim borders are drawn. Somalia is also a source of inspiration for the Muslim population in the Horn of African region and represents their cause.
Priorities for Strategic Partnership
Establishing a strategic partnership requires identifying priority sectors which are mutually beneficial for both countries. Somalia, being in the initial stage of state reconstruction, is in dire need of rebuilding the whole country, which has been left in shambles after decades of war. To ensure mutual benefit and support, a strategic partnership framework focuses on four key areas: security sector, marine resource development, transportation and infrastructure, and health and education.
Priority One: Partnership in Security Sector
Security is a key sector in rebuilding the Somali state. It encompasses multiple sectors that address major threats which impact the lives, safety, and wellbeing of the country's citizens. However, as a collapsed state, Somalia requires a new approach for rebuilding its security institutions' capabilities from scratch and laying the foundation for stable and sustainable state institutions. Developing security requires building and developing national security institutions based on national vision, values and respect for human dignity and protection of human rights. It should include the development of a professional police force that is able to enforce the rule of law, ensure public safety and competently deal with all internal security threats. Moreover, it encompasses creating an effective national defense Force that is apolitical and professional, not aggressive and oppressive. Additionally, it should nurture effective national intelligence institutions capable of discharging their duties to avert terrorism, espionages and subversive activities. Turkey and Somalia have already begun military cooperation and signed cooperation agreements in 2012 and 2014. However, this agreement should be alleviated to strategic partnership in safeguarding peace and security in the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean. This strategic partnership in the military sector provides Somalia a reliable security partner and offers capability in securing its marine resources, while simultaneously encouraging international investment in Somalia and exploitation of its abundant marine resources.
Priority Two: Partnership in Coastal and Marine Resource Development
Developing this sector requires developing marine transport, fishing enterprises, and exploration of oil and gas located in the Somali Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the Indian Ocean of 830,389 km2. This area is larger than Somalia's inland territory, which is 637,657 km2.Along this long coastline, a free-trade zones must be created where international seaports, airports and industrial complexes are established. This means Somalia will be transformed from dependence on pastoral and substance agriculture into a maritime country and a thriving urban society depending mainly on industrial development. In that program, numerous new cities will be developed in the Somali coastal areas and transport networks across the African continent will be created. Accordingly, Somalia will become an industrial and business center and a gateway to African and Middle Eastern Markets. This ambitious vision for the future of Somalia, however, requires a strategic partnership with a country like Turkey, which is accepted domestically by the people of Somalia and Western powers and could itself benefit from such a relationship with Somalia. This will enable Turkish industry and business sectors to benefit from these projects and establish permanent foothold in the Horn of Africa.
Priority Three: Partnership in Transportation & Infrastructure Development
Transport and infrastructure are vital to fostering economic growth and human development, in terms of access to markets and basic services. The nation's transport system and infrastructure is inadequate for meeting basic accessibility needs. For instance, roads, which are the principal mode of internal transport, are in shambles, and public safety regulations are almost inexistent. Somalia's network of roads is 21,830 km long. As of 2010, 2,757 km (12%) of streets are paved, 844 km (3.9%) are gravel, and 18,229 km (83.5%) are earth. 2,559 km are primary roads, 4,850 km are secondary roads, and 14,421 km are rural/feeder roads. Somalia needs to recover from its war-torn situation and to reconstruct and develop its economy in a sustainable environment and an inclusive society. Good transport facilities, roads, seaports and airports are central to economic and social development and building community cohesion and national unity. On the other hand, the strategic location of Somalia that links Asia, Europe and Africa gives it an opportunity to develop competitive marine and air transport systems, while regional business linkage with its neighbors such as Ethiopia is an advantage to vibrant land transport. However, Somalia never developed national transportation policy guidelines which offer a framework for integrated transportation systems and networks. In the post-transition period, the vision should be different and should be commensurate in developing economic and social sectors.
Priority Four: Partnership in Education and Health Sectors
Education is an indispensable investment in the present and the future of the nation. It plays an important role in cultivating a national identity, nurturing responsible citizenry and promoting social cohesion. A well-planned education system can inculcate in our citizens the good morals and the progressive values that are essential for sustainable peace and prosperity for the nation. Sadly, decades of civil war after the collapse of the central government have destroyed the education system. The revival of education was undertaken by civil society organizations and communities who established completely non-state education system. However, such an education system lacks the necessary guiding principles, common curriculums, standards, accreditation and above all technical and human resource. On the other hand, most health infrastructure was destroyed during the civil war and large numbers of medical professionals have left the country. During this period, international organizations and Somali non-state actors have undertaken responsibility of healthcare provision. In particular, the Somali private sector and non-profit institutions have undertaken huge responsibility of producing health professionals and importing supplies of pharmaceuticals. However, because of the lack of regulations, gross violations of healthcare procedures such forgery of professional qualifications, corrupted drugs, and hazardous food supplies are prevalent.
Turkey has already started ambitious programs in the education and health sectors in Somalia, though they began as part of the humanitarian intervention and many haphazard programs were initiated. The strategic partnership in these two fields entails raising education and health services in Somalia to international standards through partnerships between Somali and Turkish institutions. It also requires creating partnerships between Somali higher education institutions and comparable Turkish institutions.
Priority Five: Partnership in Commerce and Financial sectors
Creating conducive environment for internal investments, local/international business partnership and encouraging mix economy is the priority in reinstituting Somali economy. Financial institutions such as banks were among destroyed institutions during the civil war and are yet to be recovered. For the purpose of the financial transaction, informal Hawala systems such as Dababshill, Amal Express, Mustaqbal, Amana and Kaah Express are used extensively. However, currently, all types of private financial institutions such as banks are licensed by the Central Bank of Somalia.
With the great opportunities in reconstructing Somalia, the success of the strategic partnership between Somalia and Turkey in the above four stated main sectors depends to a large extend to partnering in the financial sectors. These institutions will enhance trade and investment in the various sectors.
Conclusion
Somalia-Turkey relations are deeply rooted in history, Islamic cultural heritage and their mutual presence in the Muslim commonwealth of nations (ummah). Moreover, their strategic geographical locations, trans-border ethnic extensions and peripheral location within the Muslim world offers them supplementary factors for creating strategic partnerships. Furthermore, Turkish humanitarian and developmental intervention in Somalia since 2011, highly publicized by the historic visit of the Turkish PM Tayyip Erdogan in the month of Ramadan, have strengthened friendship and created favorable reception in both countries.
This paper posited that recovering Somalia and rising Turkey have great potential for establishing strategic partnerships, especially in the five key areas: security, coastal and marine resource development, transportation and infrastructure, health and education, and trade and financial sectors. The identification of these areas simply stems from the post-transition requirements in rebuilding Somalia and could be expanded to other sectors in the future. Nonetheless, this strategic partnership will not fly unless a decent governance system is restored in Somalia, chronic political conflict is resolved, and functioning institutions are built. To ensure the success of any strategic partnership between the two countries, Somali state institutions and political institutions should be invigorated, democracy promoted and effective civic education implemented. In developing democracy in Somalia, Turkish experience in transforming from authoritarian system to democratic state should be benefited. Finally, the absence of historic rancor between the two people and their leaderships lay a solid foundation for strategic partnership.
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