Psychological Approaches to Culture

Cross-Cultural Psychology (LE01SPY403)

Aditi Trivedi LE2012761005

Psychological Approaches to Culture Cross-Cultural Psychology – Assignment 1

Name: Aditi Trivedi Class: FSLE 3 Application No.: LE2012761005 Word Count: 4283

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Cross-Cultural Psychology (LE01SPY403)

Aditi Trivedi LE2012761005

Assignment 1 – Psychological Approaches to Culture Introduction: Defining Culture Culture is term that has been used in various fields and as a result has had many connotations attached to it. It is often also used in colloquial language in order to refer to the background of an individual or their social manners (“he/she belongs to this culture”; “he/she is a cultured person”). Because it entails almost every aspect of one’s life, definitions proposed for culture tend to focus on different aspects – sometimes all at once, sometimes each in isolation. However, culture is almost always attached to the concept of a “group”. This could refer to humans as a species or even various groups and subgroups around the world. Not just psychology, but also subjects such as sociology, anthropology and biology focus on culture. Specifically, subfields such as cultural psychology, crosscultural psychology, cultural anthropology, etc. are associated with the study of culture. In fact, recently a separate field called cultural studies has been devoted to understanding culture. Two approaches to studying culture are normally used. The emic approach focuses on one culture at a time and studies it in isolation from other cultures. Etic approach on the other hand, looks at other cultures too and can be said to be the basis for cross cultural psychology. Normally a phenomenon or a mental process is chosen and studied in the context of different cultures1. Earlier, Western scholars tried to study culture in psychology and often looked at other cultures from a point of view called absolutism. Instead, now, psychologists prefer studying different cultures by using relativism wherein cultures are compared but no given any value judgement based on a scholar’s own culture2. Kuschel (2004) proposed one of the many definitions given for culture. According to him, “culture cannot be seen but we can see manifestations of it”. This is a relatively vague definition but brings forth the often discussed topic of how implicit or explicit a culture can be. Lonner (1998) defined culture as “common rules that regulate interactions and behaviour in a group as well as number of shared values and attitudes in a group”. The implicit or the underlying characteristics of the culture are highlighted by this definition. Matsumoto (2004), on the other hand, acknowledges that fact that some aspects of culture are very visible. His definition of culture was “a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, beliefs, norms and behaviour”. The use of the word “dynamic” is important here since the culture of the same group of people, residing in the same place may vary with time. Hence, culture is not just restricted to a group of people or a place but is also time-bound if an attempt is made to describe it. These three definitions focus mainly on understanding culture in terms of the entire group. However, it is important to acknowledge that culture can be linked to each individual of that group. Because of this, Hofstede (2002) called culture a “mental software” and defined it as “cultural schemas that have been internalised so that they can influence thinking, emotions and behaviour”3. All cultures are believed to have a few primary features and a few secondary features. While primary features remain the same across cultures, secondary features are culture-specific. A shared history, presence of core values, a structured social system, organised belief system, manifestations in form 1

Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. "Section 4 - Sociocultural Level of Analysis." Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. 101-35. Print. IB Diploma Programme. 2 Laungani, Pittu D. "1. What Is This Thing Called Culture?" Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt, 2007. 19-36. Print. 3 Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. "Section 4 - Sociocultural Level of Analysis." Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. 101-35. Print. IB Diploma Programme.

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of artefacts, literature and performing arts are some of the primary features. Secondary features include shared common language, physical boundaries, living arrangements, socially accepted dietary and medical practices, freedom from linguistic, religious, political and social persecution, etc4.

Behavioural Approach The behavioural approach to psychology can help understand culture especially in terms of how culture is learned. Its origins can be traced back to John Locke who suggested that individuals are born with a mind that is tabula rasa or a blank slate and the environment, including culture, affect the development of a human being5. B. F. Skinner proposed the theory of operant conditioning after Pavlov proposed the classical conditioning theory. A child may start learning about his or her culture through trial and error, i.e. by doing things and then getting corrected by members of his/her family when the behaviour is considered unacceptable. This trial and error is combined with conditioning since corrections made by the family can serve as either punishments or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement on the other hand can be used to reward actions wherein the child displays actions with comply with the values of one’s culture. Albert Bandura took the behavioural theories of learning further by adding a component of cognition as well as social factors. His theory is normally called social learning theory, although some even call it the social-cognitive theory of learning. The main emphasis here is on learning through imitation of role models present in one’s surroundings. Most children tend to have as role models people who are closer in relation to them and those belonging to the same sex as them. Like needed in case of behaviourism where observable behaviour is given priority, in this theory too, the effect of learning is can be observed in the form of its replication by children. Reinforcement is also an integral part of this theory as it can affect replication. Negative reinforcement is normally used when children start mimicking behaviour of models that act against cultural norms.

Psychodynamic Approach In the psychodynamic school of thought, the concepts of collective conscious and collective unconscious can be used to understand culture. Carl Jung used the word collective unconscious to explain the similarities in the dreams of those around the world. He stated that every person of the human species has certain ideas or images in their mind which are present not just in the minds of people of their own culture but also those from other cultures. This has been used to explain why different cultures have evolved similarly over time – from foraging to industrialisation – despite being located in different parts of the world and not having interacted with each other. Though people may not be aware of these commonalities as they are unconscious in nature, just as an unconscious piece of information has an impact on an individual, these are unconscious images that

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Laungani, Pittu D. "1. What Is This Thing Called Culture?" Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt, 2007. 19-36. Print. 5 Passer, Michael W., and Ronald E. Smith. "Chapter 1 - The Science of Psychology."Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. Indian, 5 ed. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 2013. 1-30. Print.

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Cross-Cultural Psychology (LE01SPY403)

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affect a whole species6. In comparison, the collective consciousness is a restricted process since it only involves people of the same group. This process is believed to have enabled individuals to identify with the group and follow its implicit and explicit practices with ease. Because it is conscious in nature, information in the collective consciousness can be deliberately and voluntarily added to the minds of individuals of a group and that eventually results in plurality of this information. Everybody, hence, has the same ideas about their own group and its culture. Even notions regarding out-groups can be similar within a group because of this. In comparison to collective conscious though, collective unconscious seems to have more of an impact on the basic elements of a culture as it is present in all individuals, not just those from a particular group and it is also compulsorily present – there is no option of not learning about it, unlike in the case of collective consciousness7. However, the collective consciousness does create more visible unification of people. As norms form an integral part of culture of any group, they may impact an individual greatly. One ways in which they do so, is through the superego part of the personality described by Freud. Not only does the superego emphasise on delayed gratification of id impulses, but also focuses greatly on the moral standards of one’s group and creates an ego ideal that the individual strives to achieve. In fact, some amount of delay in gratification is a result of not wanting to violate behaviour deemed socially accepted. Often, a clash between the instinctive impulses in the id of an individual and the moral stance of the superego result in moral anxiety. The role of the ego then becomes to resolve this conflict in a way that satisfies both the other parts of the personality. The path chosen could affect the type of process used (primary or secondary) or whether a need for using defence mechanism exists8. Through this long procedure, the culture would not only impact individual instances a person faces and their reaction to them but also eventually shape the personality of that person.

Humanistic Perspective The humanistic school of thought in psychology has always been viewed as the one that puts emphasis on the individual more than others and sees individuals in an optimistic framework. Because humanistic perspective views humans as having an inner desire to do things, upon which they work, culture is seen as a way of approaching life. The differences between different cultures are believed to be simply alternate ways of approaching lives which are adopted by groups of people. With a strong focus on people individually, culture is said to be created as a result of differences in human nature9. When talking of humanistic theories, it is impossible to overlook Abraham Maslow who proposed the Hierarchy of Needs. He placed social needs at the third level, indicating that once a person’s physiological and safety needs are met, they seek social relations 6

Piepmeyer, Anna. "Collective Consciousness." Collective Consciousness | The Chicago School of Media Theory. University of Chicago, Winter 2007. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . 7 Piepmeyer, Anna. "Collective Consciousness." Collective Consciousness. University of Chicago, Winter 2007. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . 8 Schultz, Duane P., and Sydney E. Schultz. "Chapter 2 - Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis." Theories of Personality. 10th ed. Delhi: Wadsworth, 2013. 39-84. Print. 9 "Examples of Humanistic Perspective." Examples of Humanistic Perspective. LoveToKnow, Corp., n.d. Web. 8 Feb. 2015. .

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Cross-Cultural Psychology (LE01SPY403)

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which can be maintained for long. Culture is a part of one’s social needs since many people first interact with people within their group before moving on to others. Further, culture can also be seen to be influencing esteem needs as the view that others hold of an individual can provide them with the boost that increases their self-esteem and perceived self-worth. Adler proposed a modified version of the hierarchy of needs wherein the stages did not necessarily have to follow an order and where regression could take place. But he still did include social needs as an important part of this theory. In humanistic perspective people are believed to have certain moral codes that they strive to follow. This view is what makes this perspective more optimistic than others. The moral codes that an individual may adopt come from their culture, which is why morality varies from culture to culture10. Despite this, culture is still believed to have relatively less impact on an individual as this perspective believes in free will of an individual overpowering the determinism of any internal or external factors, including culture.

Biological Approach A concept that has infiltrated almost every academic field related to humanities and social sciences is that of “race”. For the longest time, people were categorised on the basis of their race. The physical features of a group of people were used as primary indicators in this case. Since, groups were segregated on this basis, it was believed that even culture was partially a result of one’s race. Those belonging to the same race, would have the same genes and hence the same basis upon which the environment could work (people from the same race are believed to live in proximal areas and hence encounter similar environment). Recently though, race is no longer considered to be a proper classification as there is no genetic basis to it. Instead, the term “ethnicity” often used in anthropology has replaced it11. However, one’s physiology can affect the development of a culture. Unlike most other living organisms, human beings have certain abilities that enable them to develop a culture of their own. Human beings flourished greatly during the phase when agriculture became a dominant mode of sustenance. This continued even as they moved onto industrialisation. Such modes of sustenance require involvement of a group of people since one person does not have enough physical energy or resources to adhere to them. As a result, collaborative decision-making and cooperative communication were essential. Distribution of resources was also an important issue which led to creation of social organisations. By working together in this way and living in close physical proximity, different cultures started developing and people started identifying themselves with specific cultures12.

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Rachel, Olivia, Claire, Max, Nohelia, and Julia. "The Humanistic and Sociocultural Approach." The Humanistic and Sociocultural Approach. Arlington Public Schools, n.d. Web. 8 Feb. 2015. . 11 Poortinga, Ype H., and Axel Scholmerich. Between Culture and Biology: Perspective on Ontogenetic Development. Ed. Heidi Keller. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002.Http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam033/2002020173.pdf. Library of Congress. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . 12 Tomasello, Michael. "Human Culture in Evolutionary Perspective." Human Culture in Evolutionary Perspective - Oxford Scholarshipj. Oxford Scholarship Online, Jan. 2011. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. .

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While culture-specific abilities may be acquired from interaction with the environment, it is important to acknowledge that through evolution the abilities required for creating and sustaining culture of any type have been embedded in humans. An important ability required, for example, is the use of language. Noam Chomsky suggested that every person has a language acquisition device which is an innate mechanism of the brain that every human child is born with. While languages of different cultural groups differ, the language acquisition device leads to presence of universal grammar that causes development of language. Through language and further, interaction with adults, children can learn more about their culture13. Even facial expressions can be used as an example of biological basis to culture. Use of some expressions and gestures is very clearly regulated by different cultures. But despite this, human beings have certain emotions that are “universal” in nature. These mostly reflect in the form of involuntary type of micro-expressions. These involuntary type of micro-expressions do not vary with culture as they are physiological generated in all human beings. The reason why they exist in all, unlike the voluntary micro-expressions is because these are normally associated with basic emotions such as happiness, anger or disgust which transcend cultural boundaries since they are needed by all to express themselves14.

Cognitive Approach Cognitive approach to psychology focuses on the impact of culture on an individual more than most other approaches. This impact can be understood better by focusing on examples of some of the cognitive functions. One of the most important cognitive processes related to culture is language. Building up on the theory of Language Acquisition Device, Benjamin Lee Whorf stated that one’s language shapes the way they perceive the world. He called this the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Since, a cultural group will have most or all members using the same language for communication, it becomes the language in which they think. As a result, the entire culture is based on uniformity in their thinking. The vocabulary and the grammar structure can facilitate or restrict the understanding of the world. In English while there is just one word for “snow”, Eskimos have as many as 4-6 as it is a key element in their environment. When it comes to language, the ability to be bilingual or speak even more languages is believed to have a biological basis, i.e. everyone is believed to possess it. But the language given priority would depend upon the culture of an individual. The language most utilised by an individual would become the language in which one thinks15. This can be determined by one’s own culture or even another culture in case of migrations. Our understanding of the world is greatly determined by the type of attribution we make. Attributions are judgements about the causes behind one’s own behaviour and that of others. While personal attribution refers to relating the cause of an action to an individual’s personality, situational attribution is stating that the environment or the situation led to a behaviour. Depending upon the 13

"Theories of Language Acquisition." SparkNotes: Language and Cognition: Theories of Language Acquisition. SparkNotes LLC, n.d. Web. 6 Feb. 2015. . 14 Ekman, Paul. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage. Illustrated, Reissue, Revised ed. N.p.: W W Norton & Co, 2009. Print. 15 "Theories of Language Acquisition." SparkNotes: Language and Cognition: Theories of Language Acquisition. SparkNotes LLC, n.d. Web. 6 Feb. 2015. .

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Cross-Cultural Psychology (LE01SPY403)

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culture one comes from, the errors made in attribution vary16. In the West, most people indulge in self-serving bias where they use situational attribution for their failures and personal attribution for their achievements. This is highly condemned in the East where the opposite phenomenon, modesty bias, is present. Here, individuals attribute failures to personal factors and success to the situation. This is mainly because in the West, an individual is held responsible for their own actions but in the East, a person needs to think of other people associated with them before doing anything17. Memory can be used as another example of how culture can affect cognitive processes. While one may assume that memory is universal since everyone needs to remember something or the other, this is not the case. Memory as a process is present in all cultures but the strategy employed for memorisation can be different. The capacity of remember, however, may be the same in most cultures. In his book “The Tipping Point”, Malcolm Gladwell speaks of Dunbar’s Rule of 150. One of the reasons why 150 members is considered to be the ideal size for a group of people is because beyond this number, most people cannot remember others well or remember them at all. While a person may strongly associate to their culture, they may not necessarily interact with equal closeness with more than 150 people from it. This is believed to be the capacity of people in most cultures and even in non-human primates18. However, a factor that distinguishes memory in different cultures is the strategy used for remembering. According to Cole and Scribner (1974), in cultures that encourage formal education, methods such as chunking of data are used for memorisation. But in those cultures that do not use this type of education (such as tribal groups in Africa), memorisation is better through creating a narrative out of information to be remembered 19. The relationship between memory and culture is not unidirectional though; memory too can affect the culture of a group. Memory has enabled many cultures to preserve information such as mythology, legends, history, genealogy, etc. orally as maintaining a written record is a relatively recent practice and for a long time only a select group of people knew how to read and write.

Social Psychology When it comes to studying culture as a whole in the subject of psychology, no field studies it more than social psychology. As a result, a subfield of cultural psychology is also emerging. Because social psychology is focused on study of groups, many of the theories are applicable to cultural groups. Dunbar’s Rule of 150 states that for any group to function efficiently and happily, it should not have more than 150 members ideally. There are cultures wherein a people living in the same area split into two groups and one group moves away to a new location when the number of members exceeds 150. This is partially because beyond 150 it is hard to remember people and resources may

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Passer, Michael W., and Ronald E. Smith. "Chapter 17 - Social Thinking and Behaviour." Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. Indian, 5 ed. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 2013. 633-73. Print. 17 Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. "Section 4 - Sociocultural Level of Analysis." Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. 101-35. Print. IB Diploma Programme. 18 Gladwell, Malcolm. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. 1st ed. N.p.: Little, Brown Book Group, 2002. Print. 19 Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. "Section 3 - Cognitive Level of Analysis." Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. 67-100. Print. IB Diploma Programme.

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become scarce in a place. However, another reason is to ensure that there is less in-group hostility and conflicts due to presence of multiple opinions20. A major breakthrough in understanding of cultures in social psychology was when Geert Hoefstede (1973) proposed classification of cultures based on dimensionality of some characteristics. It was originally intended for application in the field of industrial psychology and his study comprised employees of a multinational company, IBM, from 40 countries as subjects. He proposed a few cultural dimensions wherein if a culture was classified on one end of a dimension, it could not be classified into another end. However, they could classify in different types of dimensions at once. The most commonly known dimension is that of cohesion. There are cultures which are collectivist in nature, i.e. they have strong, cohesive social ties or individualistic where such social ties are very weak. A second dimension is that of uncertainty-avoidance which refers to tolerance for uncertainty, unstructured situations and ambiguity. Those that have low tolerance tend to be uncertaintyavoidant by employing strict rules and sometimes even incorporating laws along with their religious beliefs to ensure that everyone follows them. Cultures can also differ on the basis their time orientation and goals. Most countries in Asia are long-term oriented, i.e. they focus on persistence, loyalty and the need to preserve their traditions and the goals of their cultural group. On the other hand, countries and Europe and America have short-term orientation. They value stability but not of the whole group, only of an individual. Hence, this dimension is directly related to whether a culture is individualistic or collectivistic. In terms of time orientation, there is another cultural dimension. It looks at time consciousness which was suggested by Hall (1966). Monochronic cultures focus on one thing at a time and have a high degree of planning and punctuality while in polychronic cultures people focus on many things at once and focus is more on relationships and interpersonal interactions rather than planning for specific goals. Hall also proposed the proxemic theory as a cultural dimension. This is based on the observation of how the value of “personal space” various in different cultures. In addition to these is a cultural dimension of feminity-masculinity which is based on preference given to either emphatic and caring nature, or tough, highly achieving nature of individuals of a culture21. Like in the case of cognitive approach to psychology, even the link between culture and social psychology can be understood by focusing on a few social processes. Examples of these include interpersonal relationships, expression of aggression, prosocial behaviour, etc. Another example of this is obedience which can be achieved through either compliance or conformity. Conformity refers to “the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards about how a person should behave in specific situations (social norms)”. Smith and Bond (1993) found through research that people from individualistic cultures do conform as much as those from collectivistic cultures. Berry (1967) linked this collectivistic dimension with economic practices of different cultures. He compared Temne people of Sierra Leone and Inuit people of Canada. Because Temne people are involved in agricultural practices that involve the whole community, conformity is highly valued to maintain group cohesion. Inuit people on the other hand hunt for themselves or just their

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Gladwell, Malcolm. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. 1st ed. N.p.: Little, Brown Book Group, 2002. Print. 21 Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. "Section 4 - Sociocultural Level of Analysis." Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. 101-35. Print. IB Diploma Programme.

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immediate family because of which only individual effort is needed. Not having strong social relations may make a person feel social isolation but not affect their livelihood. Even compliance is a social phenomenon affected by culture. Compliance is similar to conformity but unlike in case of conformity where a person choses to give-in to the group, compliance is when an external force or pressure is felt by an individual that makes them become obedient. There are many factors that affect compliance and some of them are even used as techniques to ensure that a person complies. In collectivist societies, for example, the concept of reciprocity affects compliance. Because a member of the group does an individual a favour, they feel the need to comply when that person asks for a favour in return as that is considered a norm22. While learning is normally studied by behaviourists, learning as a function of culture is also focused upon in other schools of psychology. Vygotsky explained development of mental processes as a result of cultural influence. According to him, children develop through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals in their environment. This explains why children learn the most basic elements of culture such as language, curtesy, accepted body language, etc. from their parents. Children can also learn about their culture through working with their peers. They can especially learn if their peer groups that include children older than them. Judith Rich Harris in “The Nurture Assumption” states that these peer groups, where children of different ages are involved, serve as propagators of culture. Most “primitive” and collectivist cultures encourage this type of play in children. Because the older children have learned the cultural norms as younger members a few years previously, they pass on this knowledge to currently younger members of the group. Not only does this explain why similarities in cultures are found generations after generations but also how it evolves and subtly changes over time23. An analogy of the Chinese whispers can be used to explain the minute changes. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development also emphasises the role of culture in development of children. The macrosystem, the outermost layer of a person’s environment, comprises cultural influences.

Conclusion Many fields have studied culture but while most of them like anthropology and sociology focus on culture as a whole, psychology also highlights how culture interacts with individuals from a culture. Different subfields within psychology have tried to explain culture as they all follow different approaches to understanding human mind and behaviour. The psychodynamic approach focuses on personality structures and collectiveness of conscious or unconscious thinking. Biological approach mainly involved evolution of human beings. Cognitive approach looks at various mental processes while social psychology looks at social processes. Even humanistic approach focuses of culture but only slightly. Whereas behavioural approach tries to explain how an individual learns about his/her culture. Miller (1999) states the psychology now needs to move beyond mere description of culture and its influences on individuals to integrating it as a part of most psychological theories. So far, study of 22

Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. "Section 4 - Sociocultural Level of Analysis." Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. 101-35. Print. IB Diploma Programme. 23 Harris, Judith R. The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do. Illustrated, Revised ed. New York: Free, 2009. Print.

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culture in psychology has been divided into two approaches – meaning-based or incompleteness. The former focuses on how culture is symbolic in nature and how it integrates different aspects of daily lives of individuals of a culture. Incompleteness hypothesis focuses on processes that have been believed to be present in all individuals, despite their cultural background. This is especially in case of development of humans from infancy. However, a recent view suggests that even these “basic” psychological processes can be modified by culture. An example cited by Miller is that in case of reading wherein children considered poor in reading can improve their reading skills by being a part of culture that encourages reading habits. Integration of culture into understanding psychological processes can be achieved through various methods – becoming more sensitive to cultural differences and recognising that many processes may be culture specific and not be universal. However, the most important argument made by Miller is to use cultural psychology not as “subfield” but rather a “perspective” for “all types of psychological inquiry”24.

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Miller, Joan G. "Cultural Psychology: Implications for Basic Psychological Theory."Psychological Science 10.2 (1999): 85-91. JSTOR. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. .

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References Crane, John, and Jette Hannibal. Psychology: Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print. IB Diploma Programme. Ekman, Paul. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage. Illustrated, Reissue, Revised ed. N.p.: W W Norton & Co, 2009. Print. "Examples of Humanistic Perspective." Examples of Humanistic Perspective. LoveToKnow, Corp., n.d. Web. 8 Feb. 2015. . Gladwell, Malcolm. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. 1st ed. N.p.: Little, Brown Book Group, 2002. Print. Harris, Judith R. The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do. Illustrated, Revised ed. New York: Free, 2009. Print. Laungani, Pittu D. "1. What Is This Thing Called Culture?" Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt, 2007. 19-36. Print. Miller, Joan G. "Cultural Psychology: Implications for Basic Psychological Theory."Psychological Science 10.2 (1999): 85-91. JSTOR. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . Passer, Michael W., and Ronald E. Smith. "Chapter 17 - Social Thinking and Behaviour." Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. Indian, 5 ed. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 2013. 633-73. Print. Poortinga, Ype H., and Axel Scholmerich. Between Culture and Biology: Perspective on Ontogenetic Development. Ed. Heidi Keller. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002.Http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam033/2002020173.pdf. Library of Congress. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . Piepmeyer, Anna. "Collective Consciousness." Collective Consciousness | The Chicago School of Media Theory. University of Chicago, Winter 2007. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . Piepmeyer, Anna. "Collective Consciousness." Collective Consciousness. University of Chicago, Winter 2007. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. . Rachel, Olivia, Claire, Max, Nohelia, and Julia. "The Humanistic and Sociocultural Approach." The Humanistic and Sociocultural Approach. Arlington Public Schools, n.d. Web. 8 Feb. 2015. . Schultz, Duane P., and Sydney E. Schultz. "Chapter 2 - Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis." Theories of Personality. 10th ed. Delhi: Wadsworth, 2013. 39-84. Print.

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"Theories of Language Acquisition." SparkNotes: Language and Cognition: Theories of Language Acquisition. SparkNotes LLC, n.d. Web. 6 Feb. 2015. . Tomasello, Michael. "Human Culture in Evolutionary Perspective." Human Culture in Evolutionary Perspective - Oxford Scholarshipj. Oxford Scholarship Online, Jan. 2011. Web. 7 Feb. 2015. .

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