Re-address Somali as a Re-emerging States-System

De Waal, Alex. "Getting Somalia Right This Time." The Opinion Pages. February 21, 2012. Accessed October 31, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/22/opinion/getting-somalia-right-this-time.html.
Deleuze, Gilles, and Felix Guittarri. "A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia." 1987. Accessed November 08, 2016. http://projectlamar.com/media/A-Thousand-Plateaus.pdf. Original Edition: Deleuze, Gilles, and Felix Guattari. Paris, France: Les Editions De Minuit, 1980.
Upsall, Kenneth C. "State Building in Somalia in the Image of Somaliland: A Bottom-Up Approach." Failure of Western State Building in Somalia. 2014. Accessed November 07, 2016. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/880/3/state-building-in-somalia-in-the-image-of-somaliland-a-bottom-up-approach.
Somalia: A History of Events from 1950 to the Present." Global Development. February 23, 2012. Accessed October 31, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2012/feb/23/somalia-history-events-in-pictures.
UN Security Council, 2015, Letter dated 19 May 2015 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999) and 1989 (2011) concerning Al-Shabaab and associated individuals and entities addressed to the President of the Security Council – Accessed November 02, 2016. S/2015/358 http://www.un. org/en/sc/ctc/docs/2015/N1508457_EN.pdf (accessed 3 October 2015)
USA 2006:15, 44; EU 2003:6, 7; Försvarsberedningen 2007 46:63, 108.
"Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview." Country Reports on Terrorism, 2014. 2014. Accessed November 07, 2016. http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2014/239407.htm.
Hobbes, Thomas. "Leviathan". Rev. Student ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996:144-145.
Ibid.
Lee Hogg, Annabel. "Timeline: Somalia, 1991-2008." December 2008. Accessed November 07, 2016. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2008/12/timeline-somalia-1991-2008/307190/.
Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed. "The Strategic Challenge of Somalia's Al-Shabaab Dimensions of Jihad." The Middle East Quarterly. Fall 2009. Accessed November 07, 2016. http://www.meforum.org/2486/somalia-al-shabaab-strategic-challenge.
Rotberg, Robert I. "When States Fail: Causes and Consequences." Princeton Press, 2003. Accessed October 28, 2016. http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7666.html.
Ibid.
Tol means patrilineal kinship. G. J. Abbink, Mirjam De Bruijn, Klaas Van Walraven. "Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History." Ed. Brill Leiden, Boston 2003. Accessed October 28, 2016.
Abbink, Garrik J. "The Total Somali Clan Genealogy." Spring 2009. Accessed October 28, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/1887/14007.
Ibid.
G. J. Abbink, Mirjam De Bruijn, Klaas Van Walraven. "Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History." Ed. Brill Leiden, Boston 2003. Accessed October 28, 2016.
Lewis, I. M. "Understanding Somalia: Guide to Culture, History and Social Institutions" London: Haan Associates 1993:47.
Jamal, Ahmad Rashid. "Identifying Causes of State failure: The Case of Somalia". Universität Konstanz Politik- und Verwaltungswissenschaften. Accessed October 31, 2016.
Ibid.
International Crisis Group, Somalia: To Move Beyond the Failed State, Africa Report N°147 – December 23, 2008, 25. Accessed November 02, 2016.
Lewis, I.M., "Understanding Somalia" (London: Haan Associates, 1993); J. Drysdale, "Stoics Without Pillows: A Way Forward for the Somalilands" London: Haan Associates, 2000).
Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in Somalia, S/1997/135, February 17, 1997, paragraphs 6, 7, and 9. For later occurrences 1997 to 2000, see S/1997/715, S/1999/882, and S/2000/1211 (December 19, 2000). Accessed November 03, 2016.
Messner, J. J. (24 June 2013). "Failed States Index 2013: What Were You Expecting?" The Fund for Peace. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
Robert W. Cox and critical theory of international relations, Moolakkattu J.S. (2009) International Studies, 46 (4), pp. 439-456.

Wendt, Alexander. "Forum on "Social Theory of International Politics"" Review of International Studies 26, no. 1 (2000): 67-124. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097659.
Ibid.
Wendt, Alexander. "Forum on "Social Theory of International Politics"" Review of International Studies 26, no. 1 (2000): 251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097659.
Ibid.
Ibid: 252.
"Somalia: A History of Events from 1950 to the Present - in Pictures." Global Development. February 23, 2012. Accessed October 27, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2012/feb/23/somalia-history-events-in-pictures.
Ibid.
Wendt, Alexander. "Forum on "Social Theory of International Politics"" Review of International Studies 26, no. 1 (2000): 252-253. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097659.
Menkhaus, Ken. "State Collapse in Somalia; Second Thoughts". Review of African Political Economy, 2003. no.97:405-422.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Menkhaus, Ken. "State Collapse in Somalia; Second Thoughts". Review of African Political Economy, 2003
no.97:418-419.
Menkhaus, Ken. "Governance without Governance in Somalia: Spoilers, State Building and the Politics of Coping". International Security, 2006/07 Vol.31 No.3 pp.74-106.
Mann, Michael. "The sources of Social Power". Vol. 2, The rise of classes and nation-states, 1760-1914
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Englebert, Pierre. "Whither the Separatist Motive?" in Bøås, Morten and Dunn, Kevin C. (Eds) "African Guerrillas: Raging against the Machine Boulder", CO: Lynne Rienner, 2007. Accessed October 24, 2016.
Ibid.
Jackson, Robert H. "Quasi-states: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Accessed November 9, 2016.
Ibid.
Brynjar, Lia. "Understanding Jihadi Proto-States." Perspectives on Terrorism. July 09, 2015. Accessed November 02, 2016. http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/441/html.
Ibid.
Lewis, I.M., "Visible and Invisible Differences: The Somali Paradox' Africa": Journal of the International Africa Institute: 74, no.4 (2004): 489-515.
Profiles Key Somali Political Actors. C-R. Org., 2010. Accessed November 2, 2016. http://www.c-r.org/downloads/Accord%2021_35Profiles_2010_ENG.pdf.
Ibid.
"Puntland Profile." February 04, 2016. Accessed November 08, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14114727.
Ibid.
"Challenges to the Reconstruction of the Somali State: From a Unitary to a Federal State." April 2013. Accessed November 06, 2016. http://www.ihasa.org/PDF/IHASA2013.pdf.
Ibid.
Srebrnik, Henry Felix, "Can clans form nations? Somaliland in the making." 2004, in Bahcheli, Tozun, Bartmann, Barry & Srebrnik, Henry Felix, "De facto states: the quest for sovereignty." Ed. Routledge, 2004.
Lyons, Terrence and Ahmed I. Samatar, "Somalia. State Collapse, Multilateral Intervention and Strategies for Political Reconstruction." Brookings Occasional Papers Washington D.C. 1995: The Brookings Institution.

Ibid.
Hall, Peter A., and Rosemary C R. Taylor. "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms." Max-Planck-Institut Für Gesellschaftsforschung. May 09, 1996. Accessed October 15, 2016.
Ibid.
Helling, Dominik. "Tillyan Footprints Beyond Europe: War-Making And State-Making In The Case Of Somaliland." November 01, 2009. Accessed November 01, 2016.
Fritz, Verena, and Alina Rocha Menocal. "An Analytical and Conceptual Paper on Processes, Embedded Tensions and Lessons for International Engagement." Understanding State-Building from a Political Economy Perspective. July 2007. Accessed November 08, 2016.
Walker, R.B.J., "Inside/Outside International Relations as Political Theory." Cambridge, 1993: Cambridge University Press.
Ibid.
Van Ham, Peter, and Peter J.S Duncan. "European Integration and the Postmodern Condition Governance, Democracy, Identity." 2001. Accessed November 02, 2016. http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781134539956_sample_520924.pdf.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Tilly, Charles, "Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1990." Oxford, 1990: Blackwell. Accessed Summer, 2016. www.scribd.com/doc/166816838/Charles-Tilly-Coercion-Capital-and-European-States-AD-990-1990-1990.
Hogan, William W. "Economic Reforms in the Sovereign States of the Former Soviet Union." June 1991. Accessed November 10, 2016. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1991/06/1991b_bpea_hogan.pdf.
Bornsztejn18

David J. Bornsztejn
POL 586
Dr. McGuinn
November 15, 2016

Re-address Somali as a Re-emerging States-System

This thesis-driven essay deals with the quandary of order in Somalia, the purpose being to determine the factors that maintain the current condition of statelessness. An important aspect of this exercise is to highlight the differences within the region embodied by the legal unit of Somalia. Located in the North of the country, two major entities have developed, Somaliland and Puntland, in stark contrast to southern and central Somalia, which "are marred by violence and the absence of effective political order." This disparity between a merely functioning and existing with or without lawful authority in States in the north compared to ineffective legitimate States in the South is essential to understand the political relations in today Somalia. This paper aims to re-address Somali as a re-emerging states-system in accordance with the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze's (1980) theory which rebuffed the "hierarchical structure in favor of the non-structured organization."
This in an attempt to change the too common and old central discourse of Somalia as a 'failed state.' The perception of Somalia as a nascent states-system brings about consequences for the political motivations of external actors who attempt to enhance stability and to create a system of political collaboration based on "norms in order to build peace substitutes to the importance of keeping and/or bring back to life the old state structure."
The examination of the political conflicts in Somalia after 1960 reveals that "the idea of the sovereign state is an important driver of conflicts." If this idea were to be abandoned, "then the chances of decreasing the extent as well as the intensity of the political violence increase. In turn, this would increase the possibilities for stability in the wider region."
Various national security reports, doctrines, articles and strategies place 'state failure' as a significant security crisis, mainly in the developing world. The idea of a 'Failed State' is perceived as challenging within itself but there is a rationale for "other security threats, such as regional instability and terrorism." This discourse holds the State as a necessary precondition for security, stability and peace. These schools of thoughts is a robust burden in Western political philosophy referring back to Hobbes' normative philosophy of the State in which he "argued that the sovereign State was a solution to the 'perpetual war' otherwise facing men." Thus to a growing extent, as according to Hobbes, "the prevention or rectification of state failure has become seen as a legitimate and pressing security concern."
A quick examination of Somali history reveals that "order has not been lacking in the country since 1991 and that the Republic of Somalia showed signs of 'failure' long before its complete demise." In the north of the country, two State-like entities Somaliland and Puntland, have been formed but not internationally recognized. In the south part of Somalia, where "the lion's share of combat has taken place since1991" and where recent hostilities are still taking place, several developments breed doubts about the belief that "state failure is synonymous with the absence of order." The nature and intensity of combat has differed considerably between 1991 and 2008, "ranging from large-scale inter-clan warfare to small-scale intra-clan fighting. These changes resemble historical changes in the character of international systems."
Therefore, is Somalia a failed State? Is modern day Somalia the product of an ancient clan-system? A safe harbor for radical Islamists? A humanitarian tragedy? The centers of operation for infamous pirates? Numerous States? The result of proxy wars? This paper will not be able to answer all of those questions, nevertheless it will attempt to define terms and offers shy propositions to the quandary of today's Somalia. The countless visages of Somalia appear to relentlessly evade the awareness of the international community. And yet we cannot steer clear of Somalia which may one day threaten the framework of world security then the next disrupt global trade.

Somali's Clans and Their Classification
As anyone as little acquainted with Somali knows, the clan is a dominant category in Somali society. The core of "the clan structure is patrilineal kinship (tol), that is, descent traced through the male line back to ahistorical ancestor (e.g. Darod, Isaaq etc.)." J. Abbink pursues that "the kinship unit that forms the basis for identity and action is always situational and relative." People of Darod descent will distinguish themselves as such in opposition to people from the "Isaaq, Hawiye,Dir, Digil and Rewein clans." Therefore "within and among the Darod, divisions into Majerteen, Ogaden, Marehan, Dhulbahante, Warsengeli and so-on become relevant sources of identity and action." 
Traditionally, according to Jamal Ahmad Rashid (2015), "the smallest active group is the group of closely related kin who, according to customary law (heer), accept the solidarity of blood vengeance." Additionally Jamal claims "this group, sometimes referred to as the diya-paying community, pays and receives blood compensation (diya)." The International Crisis Group also adds "Should compensation from the members of another diya-group not be forthcoming, this group has the duty to pursue blood vengeance."
However, it is beyond the means and purpose of this paper to determine the extent to which diya-communities matter. But as Lewis (1993) argues "traditionally, policy is decided by clan elders, odayaal, on all levels of aggregation."
As a result, the social fabric resides in many groups of various sizes that can be combined into larger units or reduced into smaller groups. These circumstances offer many indications to why Somali society tenders such a multi-layered structural picture to observers. Therefore it is imperative to emphasize that it is tricky to view any of "these organizations, e.g. diya-communities or clans, as the primordial group or level" of analysis. What does this means? In simple terms, the belief that one can recognize a specific level which would be the one that truly matters is perhaps misrepresenting. What is imperative to note is that the clan has turned out to be a very compelling category that can be exploited for political mobilization.

Order within and beyond the State
Somalia is consistently seen as a failed State, undeniably it could be argued that such are classic cases as like Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). As Messner (2013) argues "it is also indubitable that the plan to build and sustain a modern state, with internal and external sovereignty as its defining characteristics has failed in Somalia."
However, Robert W. Cox (2209) adds "many works in political science dealing with Somalia are written from a 'problem-solving perspective' rather than analytical or critical."
The objective in mind is of course to try to find a viable means of changing the situation in Somalia, sometimes including its substantial Diaspora communities but the majority of works with this ambition starts out from the 'failed State' perspective which almost invariably directs the search for change towards ways of creating a modern and sovereign Weberian state.
Following Deleuze and Guittarri's 'hierarchical structure in non-structured organization' and in this particular instance resting on Wendt's (2000) argument, this paper approaches Somali's dilemma from a different angle. As an alternative to see the "modern sovereign state as a universal norm for political organization" and resigning ourselves to believe that it is the unique possible alternative, the paper comes within reach of "Somalia as a socio- political order." Generally speaking, one can discern between the 'political' and the 'social' problem of order. According to Wendt "the first one is about establishing normatively desirable principles or ends and getting people to work towards them, through persuasion or other means." Then Wendt offers, "The second one is about creating 'stable patterns of behavior whether cooperative or conflictual."

This perspective presents two propositions in relation to Somalia
Therefore as Wendt pursues, "One, Somalia is often portrayed as the antithesis of order, as the epitome of political chaos and anarchy." Not many would argue with Wendt, whose valid statement in relation to the political problem of order Somali is faces for most of its history since 1960 is indeed viable. However, this state o political chaos has not been always correct in relation to the social problem of order since 1960, and not even since1991. Wendt who stated his second proposition "the Realist tradition of International Relations (IR) has tended to argue that shared ideas and norms, usually associated with the political problem of order, cannot be held outside of the sovereign state." This being said, not all who have studied and argued about Somali can be labeled Realists in the IR sense of the term. Nonetheless, the failed State debate has to a great extent had conflated a number of the political and social notions of order and consequently that order requires a 'sovereign' State.

Actors Sustaining the Current Situation
Menkhaus (2003) catalogued three types of actors with an appeal in extending the "conflict, lawlessness and State-less conditions in Somalia." Menkhaus' original list takes account of three groups. The first group are "those who profit from a protracted conflict." According to Menkhaus, this group has reduced in number and significance since the early 1990s. The second set comprises of "Criminal elements, particularly in smaller groups, have had an interest and a profit motive in combating law and order." Menkhaus tells us that this "group has similarly deteriorated in importance, mainly after 1999 as the Somali business community has withdrawn its support." Then he pursues stating that the latter have shifted away from the war economy of 1988-1992 era. This was accomplished in order to participate in more ordinary business to which criminality and instability are "liabilities rather than assets." And finally Menkhaus mentions the third group which are "Risk-averse actors, including both political and business communities stand loose more from the establishment of a state than from its absence."
According to Menkhaus, numerous attempts to craft an internationally recognized government have been construed as strategies to capture funds in terms of development aid and foreign investment. However, Menkhaus claimed that these efforts have not been successful. Furthermore they were opposed by actors inside and outside Somali. The business community is still extremely skeptical of a central State even "if it were to remain a quasi-State with little de facto control." These actors are as Menkhaus argues, "primarily driven by the desire to avoid the uncertainty and potential loss of resources and influence that centralized state structures could have." Apparently they would rather take the safer option of upholding the situation that has previously prevailed than face uncertainty and possible loss.
Remarkably enough, "risk-aversion rather than a positive attempt to impose a certain idea or scheme of order," appears to bring in external actors as well as internal ones. Among these foreign and domestic influences, certainly the most significant external actor in Somali's affairs remains to be Ethiopia. According to Englebert (2007), "the primary security threat from an Ethiopian perspective would be a full-blown secessionist movement gaining ground in Ogaden." Additionally Englebert, Boas and Dunn add, "The secondary one would be the establishment of an Islamic or, in the worst case, a Jihadist state in Somalia. Such an entity would risk inciting dissent, and possibly terrorism and secessionist claims from Ethiopia's Muslims." Moreover any collective, steady, and centralized Somali State that would be suitable to Ethiopia would have to renounce irredentism and a nationalistic Somali ideology in a convincing way. This would be very hard to achieve.
What appears as an essential factor for sustaining the recent Somali's state of affairs is not an actor, but as Robert H. Jackson claims, "rather a structural paradigm or a 'regime'," that is, as Jackson defines it, a "negative sovereignty regime that sustains 'quasi-states' in the Third World." Evidently, the array of ideas suggest that colonial borders must be maintained at all costs in Africa and that the politics of international perception disregards, in practice, control and legitimacy of government as measures for sovereign Statehood.

Re-conceptualizing Somalia as a Regional States-System
Currently what was a State between 1960 and 1991 has resulted of a "proto-states-system" consisting of Somaliland, Puntland, and the South. The conflicts that erupted in the region from the late 1980s can to a certain extent be seen as wars of "state-formation." Not merely were they portions of a complex of civil conflicts and/or banditry were additional struggles over what kind of order that should supplant the obsolete State left by Siad Barré. The Somaliland factions (Isaaq clan) evidently supported an order with at least two successor States, Somaliland and Somalia, and "seem agnostic as to the question of how many units the remaining part of the country should be carved into." As for the "Majeerteen clan, under the leadership of Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed," they at first appeared to battle for the maintenance of a "single unitary Somalia under their control." After 1998, the "Puntland proclaimed itself to be an autonomous entity within a federal Somalia," their plan for order seemed to be a federal order or rather confederal in view of "how well developed the institutions and state-like trappings of Puntland have become."
It is best not to measure up "state-formation in Somali with the formation of a unitary state but with a states-system" that differs over time with regard to "its norms and to the strategies of different players to gain influence, power and, ultimately supremacy, as well as the strategies of these players to avoid risk, exposure and threats to their survival." The presence of many political units who retain control over the means of "organized violence and revenue of some kind and do not bow to any higher authority is the basis for this claim." Such as in many historical regional sub-level systems, outside actors have been an important factor in Somalia as they have pursued to acquire influence and power as well as to prevent risks to their "interests and / or survival through the use of clients and sometimes direct military force."
Considering Somalia as a regional sub-system and as a sort of proto-states system is a pragmatic conceptualization grounded in recent history and on "the analysis of the factors that sustain this order." Nonetheless, it is not founded on any assertions about the irreconcilability of the Somali clan system and the Western sovereign state; such principled arguments can be disproved with reference to the Somaliland experience. As Peter Hall (1996) explains, "this conceptualization is not only an exercise in historical sociology or in the sub-field of state-formation studies." Hall pursues, "entails have substantial political implications as well as implications for military strategic thinking."
By walking away from the concept of Somalia as a State and the ambition that a single State is the normal condition and desirable end reveals new potentials to handle the situation. If Somalia is perceived as a proto-states system, then the international community should encourage the developments towards creating a stable one with a 'Lockean' principles rather than an explosive one founded on a 'Hobbesian' ethos which is based on hostility and "oriented towards constitutive struggles." Within this Hobbesian system, antagonists would abide by some rules similar to jus ad bellum (the right to wage war) as well as jus in bello (rules of war). In a Lockean system, antagonists would behold each other as rivals, not as enemies. Violence or hostility between rivals may indeed be deadly. Instituting and defending a system of a Lockean nature as a first step could be the best prospect of crafting a solution that is not only durable and stable, but more acceptable, especially in terms of human development and human rights.

Conclusion
Instead of inflicting a model on modern Somalia that seems to compel violence and increase instability, maybe external actors should somehow encourage current trends, however, attempt to frame them in realistic directions. As a result we would been subscribing to a system to build a failed State which might compel States and citizenries to a hopeful peace and nation-building approach.
The narratives on state-building, i.e. "Western-assisted construction of Weberian state institutions", tend to focus on internal developments, institutions and dynamics. As pointed out by Rob Walker, "the national and the international are two aspects of the same paradigm."
Walker insists that "states presuppose other states for their existence, logically as well as historically." Before Western states arose into "the complex and integrated entities they are today they were rudimentary polities in contact with other polities." Following Van ham and Duncan (2001), there is much to advocate that the development of "state structures and their integration" with society were motivated by developments taking place not only in other states, but also through the systemic context in which European polities co-existed." As Charles Tilly (1990) reminded us "that armed competition among polities acted as a driver for measures improving internal administration and efficiency is a well-known and oft-cited example."
Somalia has been a dreadful security conundrum since the 1980s, long before the ultimate "fall of centralized state institutions in 1991." Consequently the security situation has deteriorated since the mid-1990s. The efforts by the international community and by regional actors to resurrect a centralized state have failed and there are no signs suggesting that they could one day work. In the light of these fiascos and of the shattering situation in the Somali's current approaches and solutions are visibly vowed to fail. Such approaches necessitate new conceptualizations of the situation. This essay has professed that acknowledging Somali as a multi-states-system and by this means bring to an end the quasi-state regime may well solve or improve a number of pressing security concerns: [1] The violent struggles in southern and central Somali; [2] the humanitarian situation in Somali; [3] interstate enmity in the Horn of Africa and; [4] Somali as a center for a wild array of terrorist organizations and as well for organized criminal syndicates.



 



Bibliography

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Abbink, G. J., Mirjam De Bruijn, Klaas Van Walraven. "Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History." Ed. Brill Leiden, Boston 2003. Accessed October 28, 2016.
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Cox, Robert H., and critical theory of international relations, Moolakkattu J.S. (2009) International Studies, 46 (4), pp. 439-456.
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Tilly, Charles, "Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1990." Oxford, 1990: Blackwell. Accessed Summer, 2016. www.scribd.com/doc/166816838/Charles-Tilly-Coercion-Capital-and-European-States-AD-990-1990-1990.
Upsall, Kenneth C. "State Building in Somalia in the Image of Somaliland: A Bottom-Up Approach." Failure of Western State Building in Somalia. 2014. Accessed November 07, 2016. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/880/3/state-building-in-somalia-in-the-image-of-somaliland-a-bottom-up-approach.
Van Ham, Peter, and Peter J.S Duncan. "European Integration and the Postmodern Condition Governance, Democracy, Identity." 2001. Accessed November 02, 2016. http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781134539956_sample_520924.pdf.
Walker, R.B.J., "Inside/Outside International Relations as Political Theory." Cambridge, 1993: Cambridge University Press.
Wendt, Alexander. "Forum on "Social Theory of International Politics"" Review of International Studies 26, no. 1 (2000): 67-124. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20097659.

Other Publications and Web Sources

"Challenges to the Reconstruction of the Somali State: From a Unitary to a Federal State." April 2013. Accessed November 06, 2016. http://www.ihasa.org/PDF/IHASA2013.pdf.
"Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview." Country Reports on Terrorism, 2014. 2014. Accessed November 07, 2016. http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2014/239407.htm.
International Crisis Group, Somalia: To Move Beyond the Failed State, Africa Report N°147 – December 23, 2008, 25. Accessed November 02, 2016.
Profiles Key Somali Political Actors. C-R. Org., 2010. Accessed November 2, 2016. http://www.c-r.org/downloads/Accord%2021_35Profiles_2010_ENG.pdf.
"Puntland Profile." February 04, 2016. Accessed November 08, 2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14114727.
Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in Somalia, S/1997/135, February 17, 1997, paragraphs 6, 7, and 9. For later occurrences 1997 to 2000, see S/1997/715, S/1999/882, and S/2000/1211 (December 19, 2000). Accessed November 03, 2016.
"Somalia: A History of Events from 1950 to the Present - in Pictures." Global Development. February 23, 2012. Accessed October 27, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2012/feb/23/somalia-history-events-in-pictures.

Somalia: A History of Events from 1950 to the Present." Global Development. February 23, 2012. Accessed October 31, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2012/feb/23/somalia-history-events-in-pictures.
USA 2006:15, 44; EU 2003:6, 7; Försvarsberedningen 2007 46:63, 108.

Divers Sources

Adam, Husein M., "Formation and Recognition of New States: Somaliland in Contrast to Eritrea". Review of African Political Economy, 1994. No.59:21-38.
Ahmed, Ismail I and Reginald Herbold Green, "The heritage of war and state collapse in Somalia and Somaliland: local-level effects, external interventions and reconstruction". Third World Quarterly, 1999. Vol.20, No 1, pp-113-127.
Andrew, K & V. Holt, "United Nations- African Union Coordination on Peace and Security in Africa." Henry L. Stimson Centre, Issue Brief August 2007, p.8.
Barnes, Cedric and Harun Hassan, "The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts". Journal of Eastern African Studies, 2007. Vol.1, No.2 151-160.
Besteman, Catherine, "A response to Helander's critique of 'violence politics and the politics of violence". American Ethnologist, 1998. Vol. 26 (4): 981-983.
Buzan, Barry and Waever, "Regions and Powers the Structure of International Security." Cambridge, Ole 2004: Cambridge University Press.
Chandler, David, "Empire in denial: the politics of state-building." London, 2006: Pluto
Hansen, Stig Jarle, "Somalia's Anarchy and Meddling Neighbors" Jane's Islamic Affairs Analyst. August 01, 2007.
Kaplan, Seth, "The Remarkable Story of Somaliland". Journal of Democracy, 2008. Vol. 19 (3): 143-157.
Quaranto, Peter J, "Building States While Fighting Terror. Contradictions in United States Strategy in Somalia from 2001 to 2007." ISS Monograph, 2008. Series No 143, May 2008.
Stedman, Stephen John, "Conflict and Conciliation in Sub-Saharan Africa." 235-267 in Brown, Michael E (Ed.) The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict CSIA Studies in International Security, 1996. The MIT Press Cambridge, MA p.236-37.
Tomlinson, Chris, "Unintended consequences: how Somalia's business community, in search of stability, and the USA, in search of terrorists, nearly created a radical Islamic state in the horn of Africa". Global Business and Economics Review, 2008. Vol.10, No.2, pp.229-238.
Weiss, Thomas G., "Military-Civilian Interactions: Intervening in Humanitarian Crises." Oxford, 1999: Roman & Littlefield.

Periodicals

The Economist January 13th 2007
The Economist July 29th 2006
The Economist January 6th 2007
The Economist July 15th 2006
The Economist September 30th 2008
The Economist June 10th 2006
The Economist November 17, 2007
Puntland Opposes `Makhir State' http://www.somalilandtimes.net/sl/2007/291/3.shtml access 2008-10-23.