Recent Developments in Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices: A Review

Copyright © 2016 American Scientific Publishers All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Journal of Bionanoscience Vol. 10, 81–93, 2016

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Recent Developments in Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices: A Review Daksh Daksh∗ , Deepak Rawtani, and Yadvendra Kumar Agrawal Gujarat Forensic Sciences University, Near DFS Head Quaters, Sector 9, Gandhinagar 382007, Gujarat, India Electronics is the science of controlling electric current. The fundamental of flow of electrons to provide energy with the electrically active components as transistors, diodes, integrated circuits and passive components and interconnected developing technologies. Here, the Nano-Bioelectronics defines the technology, which uses the salient features of Nanoelectronics and biological methods. The biological compounds have characteristic feature to behave as electronic devices and have electrical properties. These may lead to the formation of NanoBio-interfacial strategies and Nanodevices. The paper focuses on the various strategies and methods used for utilizing DNA as an electronically active device. In this paper, we are trying to elucidate the techniques for the self-assembly of devices and networks with the help of DNA Nanowires and also explains the electronic manipulations of DNA. In this review, the various applications with interesting properties are also investigated.

Keywords: Nanoelectronics,

Bio-Nanoelectronics, Self-Assembly, Electronic Manipulations.

CONTENTS

DNA,

Nanowires,

Nanodevices,

Delivered by Ingenta to: York University Libraries of nanostructures such as nanorods, nanowires, nanosen-

21 Jun 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP: . . . .5.189.201.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On: . 81Tue, sors, etc.2016 with 05:52:04 the help of biological macromolecules for Copyright: Publishers 2. Strategies for Self-Assembled Bio-Nanoelectronics DevicesAmerican . . . 82 Scientific ex. DNA. With the help of these properties DNA become 2.1. Nanofabrication of Biomolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 more effective as genetic material and can be used for pro2.2. Self-Assembled Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices . . . . . . . . . . 83 grammed self-assembly. The self-assembly properties help 2.3. Self Assembly of DNA Nanowires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 DNA to arrange metals and semiconductor nanoparticles 2.4. Self Assembly of Devices and Networks by Recombinant DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 for the construction of metallic nanowires. Thus, we are 2.5. Architecture for Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices . . . . . . . . . . 86 going to highlight the use of the unique properties of DNA 3. DNA Based Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 in the field of electronics, self-assembly of devices and 3.1. DNA Based Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 electrical switching and manipulations in DNA. We are 3.2. Electronic Manipulations in DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 also trying to show why DNA hybridization process can 4. Applications of Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 provide a good bound to self assemble components. 4.1. Biosensing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.2. Recent Developments in The self-assembled biomolecules have a significant role Biomolecular Nanoelectronics Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 in the formation of Bioelectronic devices. These devices 5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 mainly consist of functional protein and organic molecules References and Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

1. INTRODUCTION The electrical manipulations of DNA have significant applications and will be dominating in the future. The aspects of using targeted drug release studies with the help of binding with nanobots, nanomaterials and having the similar properties with the DNA trends or structure. The bonding of Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine help to store the biological information. In this paper, we are trying to enhance the properties by using the techniques of fabrication and development ∗

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

J. Bionanosci. 2016, Vol. 10, No. 2

and fabricated over them with the help of thin film layers. Here, self-assembly is used for creating building blocks and an ordered pattern structure having abilities to control nucleation and growth to a very high level of perfection at nano level.1 2 Thus, by using the techniques of self-assembly, there is hope for the construction of Bio-Nanoelectronics devices. These devices have high sensitivity and enhanced electrical and optical conductivity properties. Due to high optimized properties, these devices are used in various applications in different field of science from electronics to biotechnology or medicine, for example: in biosensing of biomarkers and imaging applications at nanoscale, for constructing biological motors and nanomachines, etc.3 4 Tretiak et al. have demonstrated

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and due to this two dimensional periodic lattices with three-dimensional structures. In addition, its applications, advantages and future aspects are also discussed (Fig. 1).

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2. STRATEGIES FOR SELF-ASSEMBLED BIO-NANOELECTRONICS DEVICES

Fig. 1. Classification of nano-bioelectronics.

the electronic properties of DNA molecule adsorbed on the metallic surfaces. They observed various geometrical and electronic structures of the nucleobases on the Cu substrate in the interpretation of DNA.5–7 DNA nanotechnology plays a crucial role in determining the molecular recognition properties of DNA and to use them as selfassembled branches of DNA with useful properties. So, there may be possible to use DNA as a structural material

2.1. Nanofabrication of Biomolecules The fabrication of solid surfaces with the help of monolayers of organic biomolecules has attracted much attention towards the development of nanosensors and bio-electronic devices. By using self-assembly, it becomes the most advanced and sophisticated for the development of future integrated devices. Self-assembled layers seem to be very important for the studies of bio-molecules and biomarkers. The crystal growth was controlled by the activity of functional groups present in the biomolecules. Thus, they developed a thin film above the substrates and showed a high sensitivity for the sensing applications. With the integration with organic biomolecules, their

Daksh Daksh was born in 1990. He obtained his B. Tech. (Hons.) in Computer Science Engineering from Lovely Professional University, India in 2012. He has work experience of 20 months from 2012–2014 in the field of Computer Science as Engineer in AONHewitt Pvt. Ltd. having exposure to mainframes and other IBM technologies and different softwares. Currently,byheIngenta is enrolled in Institute of Research and Development, Gujarat Forensic Delivered to: York University Libraries IP: 5.189.201.29 On:forTue, Jun 2016 05:52:04 Sciences University, India M.S.21(Forensic Nanotechnology) degree from 2014. Copyright: American Scientific Publishers

Deepak Rawtani received his M.E. in Biotechnology from BITS Pilani and Ph.D. in Nanobiotechnology. He has work experience of over 13 years, mostly in the field of molecular medicine and discovery biology at various research organizations like USV Limited, Mumbai and Torrent Research Centre, Ahmadabad. For the last six years, he is serving as an Assistant Professor of Nanobiotechnology at the Institute of Research and Development, Gujarat Forensic Sciences University, India.

Yadvendra Kumar Agrawal, M.Sc.-Ph.D., D.Sc. (USA) in Pharmaceutical Science, D.Sc. (India), F.R.S.C. (UK), C.Chem. (UK), F.I.C., F.S. (Switz), F.A.Sc. (USA), F.G.S.A., is the Director for the Institute of Research and Development—Gujarat Forensic Sciences University. Formerly, he has worked as the Director—Nirma Institute of Science and Technology—Nirma University—Ahmedabad; Director—School of Sciences—Gujarat University—Ahmedabad; and Professor and Head—Pharmacy Department—Faculty of Technology and Engineering—M. S. University—Baroda. He has more than 45 years of teaching and research experience and has published more than 500 research papers, in National and International Journals of repute. He has 5 patents, guided 117 Ph.D. Students (in Pharmacy, Chemistry, Engineering and Biosciences) and also 30 M.Pharm.; 5 M.Phil and 5 M.E. students, during the course of his career. 82

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2.2. Self-Assembled Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices Bioelectronic devices are based on the transfer of charges between electrons with the help of photodiodes made up of self-assembled biomolecules. These charge transfer can be done with the help of films deposited on the substrates using self-assembly method. Choi et al. have investigated the Biomolecular photodiodes consists of protein adsorbed films. They developed the technique of constructing Bioelectronic devices by depositing metallic electrodes on the surface films using self-assembly method and film deposited techniques as Langmuir-Blodgett method. They showed the interaction between molecular electronics and Bioelectronics. They constructed metal/insulator/metal structured devices by using functional biomolecules as proteins and organic molecules. They proposed the molecular array for the development of storage devices as bio-memory devices. The studies conclude that the integration of bio and electronic devices at nano level may provide sophisticated and better devices for memory purposes J. Bionanosci. 10, 81–93, 2016

Noy et al. have investigated the integration of nanomaterials with the biological components which may leads to the formation of Bio-Nanoelectronics devices.10 These nano scale devices prove a significant role in biosensing and tissue level integration of complex structures with electronic and biological functions. The role of carbon nanotubes in biosensing and in biological functionalization represents the most developed area of Bio-Nanoelectronics. With these, they also represented that the integration of lipid layers with 1D nanostructure devices having an ability to use membrane proteins. Through electronic devices the functionality of biomolecules can be controlled which may lead to the formation of Bio-Nanoelectronics devices with lipid layers. The Bio-Nanoelectronics devices can be used in medical diagnosis, quantum computing and memory based storage devices.4 10 2.3. Self Assembly of DNA Nanowires The self assembly of DNA is very important for constructing conducting metallic nanowires. Braun et al. 83

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which results in the development of nano-transistors and forms nanomachines or integrated nanometers and can nano or quantum computers.4 Hess et al. have explained be used for loading and unloading. The nanometers are the integration of biological motors for making new bound with functioned DNA’s to develop nanomechanical dimensions in the field of nanotechnology. They repremotors and can be used for switching applications. The sented the self-assembly of nanostructures with the help of self-assembly of monolayers provide a path to develop atomic force microscopy for the synthetic design of molecdevices and tools for applications from electronics to bioular motors. These motors can be used in electronics as electronics. And they help for the construction of varinanorobots or can be used for molecular robotics.8 These ous devices to complex integrated atomic interactions for synthetic representations of complex nano-bio devices can computation and atomic manipulations and repairing of be used in many applications in the field of nanotechbiological materials.1 Ozin et al. represented the methnology and may lead to an ongoing path from nanoods of nanofabrication of substrates with monolayers using Bioengineering to biological and biomedical research and self-assembly. They have explained nanofabrication and in energy conversion. self-assembly methods and their challenges which have The self-assembly of 1D and crystalline nanowires are occurred while doing nanofabrication. They developed 3D mainly used for the construction of organic transistors. architectures using nanofabrication and metal oxide elecOrganic transistors have more advantages due to their facile trochemiluminescence devices for improving the future 2 large scale synthesis and molecular tenability achieved applications in the field of nanotechnology. through designing. Briseno et al. have showed the appliThe molecular recognition properties of bio-molecules cations for the organic nanowire transistors in their article such as DNA represent different approaches towards and can be used for the future applications.9 These transisnanoscale electronics. DNA strands are coupled and fabtors can be used as nanosensors, photodiodes, photovoltaics ricated with nanomaterials to construct conducting nanoand highly sophisticated, integrated and complex memory tubes and nanowires for making integrated nano systems. storage and network devices. They have also reported the These help DNA to build nanocircuits by using their scaffabricated polymeric nanotrasistors for enhancing the applifolds. The integration and connection with outer fabricated cations in the semiconductor industry as well as intrinsic layers enhance the electronic properties of DNA and protransport properties. This can be used for optical charge duce templates for electronic circuits. Dupraz et al. have transport with the help of fabricated devices. The integrashowed the molecular electronicsDelivered and self-assembly by Ingentaofto: York Libraries tionUniversity of biomolecules into the 1D nanoscale devices and biomolecules using conventional IP: lithographic techniques 5.189.201.29 On: Tue, systems 21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 provides an interesting set of research. With the Copyright: American for combining self-assembly properties of DNA and car- Scientific Publishers guided approach of self-assembly these devices can be bon nanotubes. Using the methods, they developed hybrid obtained. Proteins and organic bio-molecules are used for Bio-Nanoelectronics circuits and further explained the fabthe formation of building blocks providing proper chanrication of DNA with silver to construct the fabricated nels and relays as for the transfer of charges within them. conducting nanowires. The developed techniques can also The transformation into 1D nanostructure as of nanowires be used for fabrication of biosensors and bioelectronic and nanotubes, which leads to the formation of single elecdevices.3 tron based Nanoelectronics devices such as nanotransistors.

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demonstrated the self assembly and subsequent mineralTam et al. explained the covalently immobilized probe ization of DNA in an electronic structure. They mixed DNA on MWCNTs for direct and label-free detection of and joined DNA with complementary oligonucleotides influenza virus (type A).27 The investigators used FT-IR with gold electrodes to obtain a single bridge. Then they and Raman spectroscopy for the confirmation of covaexplained the development of conducting nanowires by lent bonding between amine and phosphate groups present using DNA as a template through the direct synthesis in the DNA sequence. The fabricated DNA MWCNT’s of silver nanoclusters from Ag2+ ions. The generated biosensor can be used for the detection of target DNA up nanowires respond towards current voltage measurement to 0.1 nM28–30 (Fig. 2). which indicates ohmic or conductance behavior which is Zhu et al. demonstrated the formation of DNA biosenvery similar to the behavior represented by bulk metals. sors with the help of fabricated electronic transducers.31 These conducting DNA nanowires can be used in sensThese transducers are fabricated with the help of ing applications or as sensors. They work on the principle MWCNTs non-covalent sidewalls for immobilization of that the change in chemical potential with a target binding polyamidoamine dendrimer and by using them, the senagent can be used as field effect gate upon the nanosensor sitivity and selectivity of the biosensor for the detecby changing its conductance for example DNA hybridization of targeted DNA are increased up to 0.1 pM. The tion. It represents the similar functionality as of FET’s.11–17 study of DNA-based nanostructure is an attractive field The ideal nanowire sensor is a single crystal nanowire due to its unique structure, physical and chemical properwith a diameter between 5 nm and 25 nm. The advantage ties and recognition capabilities. This paper describes the of using nanowire sensors is that the number and denutilization of DNA for preparing nanostructured materisity of the sensor elements can electronically address the als and the use of nanostructures for various biochemical individual nanowires. So that, large scale circuits can be and medical applications and also as DNA-based nanoconstructed within a very small environment and they are structures, DNA functionalized nanowires and biosensors enabled to the measurements of large numbers of different for the detection purposes.32–40 proteins and genes from very small tissue samples or even Winfree et al. demonstrated the design and self assemsingle cells.18 19 In recent years, there is extremely interbly of two dimensional DNA crystals and also explained esting developed for using novel solid state nanomaterials their various applications. They observed that the interfor medical and biological applications due toby their uniqueto: York Delivered Ingenta University Libraries molecular interactions between the structural units of two physical properties of nanoscale solids (quantum dots IP: 5.189.201.29 On:orTue,dimensional 21 Jun 2016DNA 05:52:04 crystals, self assemble from synthetic Copyright: American Scientific Publishers nanowires) in conjunction with the remarkable recognition DNA, have specific periodic patterns at the nanomecapabilities of biomolecules which could lead to miniater scale and may be characterized by Atomic Force ture biological electronics and optical devices including Microscopy41–46 (Fig. 3). biosensors and probes. Maxwell et al. developed a novel method for detecting specific DNA sequences and single base mutations in the biomolecules. The principle they applied for the detection depends on oligonucleotide molecules having thiol group at one end of the core of a 2.5 nm Au nanoparticle and a fluorophore at the other end.20 This leads to the formation of hybrid structure which represents constrained arch like conformation on the particle surface and when they are in the assembled state, the fluorophore is quenched by the gold nanoparticle.21 The structural rigidity of the hybridized double stranded DNA can be able for the opening of conformation and removing of fluorophore from the surface, resulting to provide fluorescence. The generated fluorescence signal due to structural change is highly sensitive and specific to the target DNA.22–24 The main problem that researchers and scientists are facing in the field of DNA detection is the development of new methods that may not depend on polymerase chain reaction and the target amplification systems which demands additional instruments and reagents. Such as, Fig. 2. DNA nanotubes (shown here in red) align along the prefabnanowires can be used as biosensors for differentiating ricated nanopattern on a silicon surface. Reprinted with permission between the wild type and mutant genes for transmemfrom [84], B. Teshome, et al., Nanoscale 6, 1790 (2014). © 2014, Royal brane receptor proteins.24–26 Society of Chemistry. 84

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REVIEW Fig. 3. AFM image showing single and double layer of a DNA hexagonal array. Top layer of the double layer is translated 17.5 nm with respect to the bottom layer. The distance between the two adjacent overlays is 30 nm. Reprinted with permission from [55], A. Y. Koyfman, et al., Langmuir 25, 1091 (2009). © 2009, American Chemical Society.

2.4. Self Assembly of Devices and Networks by to another object displaying the complementary ssDNA. Recombinant DNA Therefore, a region of ssDNA and its complementary ssDNA act as tags (T and T  ) for orienting the two objects DNA molecules can be used as templates for selfin 3-space. These tags are a key feature of DNA selfassembled nanometer-scale conductive metallic wires and assembly techniques. By appending DNA to nano-scale can be used in the nanodevices for providing better funcobjects it can act as “smart glue” for organizing those tionality. The molecular biology techniques allow the objects in space.61–64 conversion of the insulating biological molecules into Through photolithography, we are able to fabricate the functionalized electronic components on the underlying nano devices. Hence, we have to create a defect in their DNA sequences at nanometer-scale resolution for localcharacteristics. So, we can say a defect is a permanent ization of electronic particles. The Recombinant DNA has physical fault that was introduced into the system or a a significant role in this as it provides the mechanism of device during Libraries fabrication of substrate. Here, there are gene mixing in cells and can be used for the by formation Delivered Ingentaofto: York University types of defects: functional and positional. A func21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 molecular DNA junctions that canIP:be5.189.201.29 employed in On: com-Tue, two Copyright: American Scientific Publishers tional defect corresponds to a component that does not plex electronic devices.46–51 perform its specified function. A positional defect correIn this paper, we discussed about the two-step selfsponds to a functionally correct component, but it is not assembly technique, in this the inherent molecular recogplaced correctly. Both CMOS and DNA self-assembled nition capabilities of DNA trends or nanostructures are utilized to build a network that uses DNA as a template for the subsequent assembly of electronic materials into a functionalized complex circuit and it shows conductance properties. For example, when RecA protein, which is responsible for recombination in E. Coli bacteria can be used to build DNA junctions and these junctions can be used as templates for electronic switching of devices in the complex circuits.52–59 Abbaci et al. proposed a DNA hybridization method for creating self assembly of micro components or devices using DNA as building blocks. They also represented the modeling and simulation of DNA hybridization60 (Figs. 4, 5). Patwardhan et al. showed DNA self-assemblies to create patterned scaffolding onto which we can programmable attach carbon nanotubes.61 DNA’s well-known doublehelix structure is formed through its well-understood basepairing rules–adenine (A) to thymine (T) and cytosine (C) to guanine. By specifying a particular sequence of base pairs on a single strand of DNA, they can exploit the base-pair rules as organizational instructions. They use Fig. 4. AFM image showing the structures of the DNA lattices. unpaired, single-strand regions (ssDNA) extending from Reprinted with permission from [54], C. Zhang, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. the ends of one nano-scale object to specifically bind Sci. U.S.A. 105, 10665 (2008), © 2008. J. Bionanosci. 10, 81–93, 2016

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a misplaced nanowire could cause a short between power and ground or it could change circuit functionality in unpredictable ways (for example, by erroneously connecting the output of a gate to its input).65–72 2.5. Architecture for Bio-Nanoelectronics Devices The Nanoelectronics circuit architecture is used for providing a balance between the regularity of DNA self-assembly patterning capabilities, the complexity required for sophisticated system designs and tolerance to the inevitable defects present in nanoscale systems. Cheng et al. have explained their fabrication methodologies for constructing plasmonic nano-architectures with DNA. They used the top-down approaches and defined the plasmonic properties of metallic nanostructures.73 With the help of DNA self-assembly technology, we can create periodic arrays of identical unit cells. The DNA self-assembly has a limitation such that it is directly proportional to the unique tag. Hence the probability of incorrect tag matches increases as the number of unique tags increases. For each type of connection, we need a unique pair of complementary ssDNA tags. As there are more types of connections and a fixed number of base-pairs per tag, the tags become more common and partial matches become more easily.74 75 Current CMOS based circuits can arbitrarily place hundreds of millions of nano and micro devices (both nFET Delivered by Ingenta to: York University Libraries and pFET) and wires IP: 5.189.201.29 On: Tue, 21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 with precision on the order of Copyright: American Scientific 0.10 m.Publishers This precision is achieved by using photolithography to specify exactly where each individual component belongs. With the combination of carbon nanotube devices and DNA self-assemblies, the developed circuits are complex enough to perform interesting computations and provide faster logical calculations76–78 (Fig. 6). The process of using DNA-guided self-assembly to create Nanoelectronics circuits presents several challenges that must be studied and observed when designing a nano or micro system. Fig. 5. Modeling of two and three-layer assemblies of DNA. Folding The three primary aspects of the process are: of a representative DNA sheet along the blue line (top) leads to dense (1) Nano-scale control of placement and connectivity packing in which three-point-star motifs are positioned on top of each  within a single node other, rotated 180 and predicted to be separated by 30 nm (shown in red). Bottom shows a folded DNA sheet positioned on another DNA sheet to generate two- and three-layer assemblies. Reprinted with permission from [55], A. Y. Koyfman, et al., Langmuir 25, 1091 (2009). © 2009, American Chemical Society.

Nanoelectronics can incur functional defects, but only selfassembly is likely to incur positional defects. Positional defects can be both defects of omission and commission. An omissive positional defect occurs when a component is not placed where it belongs. A commissive positional defect occurs when a component is placed where it does not belong. Omissive defects behave just similar to functional defects. Commissive defects are more dangerous because they can behave like bridging faults. For example, 86

Fig. 6. Self-assembled DNA interconnecting network.

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(2) Micro-scale randomness in node placement and interconnection (3) High defect rate

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These three aspects significantly impact, architectural decisions, while conventional architectures assume precise control at both the nano and micro-scale.79–81 There are some important challenges and issues for developing architecture for the micro and nano devices or systems: How to design a Node Fig. 7. System model shows nodes within a cell and 2D mesh of cells. The designing and use of node always remains the query. Processing nodes (A1), memory nodes (N ), memory port nodes (N ∗ ), We have to check characteristics and functionality of each anchor nodes (A) and duct (Z). node and which functionality is required at which point. How many types of nodes we have to use and nodes must Patwardhan et al. proposed an architecture, the architecnot affect the connectivity or communication between ture is like an active network61 80 in that execution packets other nodes. that contain instructions and operands search through a How to use Multiple Nodes loosely structured sea of processing and memory nodes for There is always need to use multiple nodes for computhe functionality that they need at each step of execution. tation and storage of information or data. The architect This architecture matches our technology characteristics as may allow the use of multiple nodes for better connectivit allows for differing node types with specialized functionity and communication between nodes and provides better ality, tolerates a random interconnection of nodes and node and faster computations. and interconnects defects.80 The system model described How to route with Limited Connectivity in Figure 7 can be used for defining interconnecting nodes, In routing when the source is directly not available or sue which can be used for communication and for memory to lack of resources, it shows limited connectivity. There storage and processing. A node is an interconnecting chanis a need for dynamic routing for providing better comnel between neighboring nodes and it is bidirectional. The munications in comparison of static routing. There must group of nodes is cell and a cell has provided with duct be fixed and defined routing technique to overcome theseto: York University Libraries Delivered by Ingenta through this it is connected to nano/micro scale systems IP:but 5.189.201.29 On: Tue, 21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 types of minor hurdles of low level causes big issues and nodePublishers connected with duct may be termed as anchor Copyright: American Scientific at higher levels. node. And finally they are connected to memory ports for How to develop an Execution and Precise Model providing an interface between packets and memory storThere is the need for software model which can be applied age for the systems. in the design of architecture and can be well defined by instruction sets and easy to implement. The prototype 3. DNA BASED BIO-NANOELECTRONICS model with execution model has to be provided with conDEVICES strained defined instruction sets. The electronic structures that are formed due to the effect How to develop an Instruction Set of chemically synthesized using bottom-up approach as The instruction sets are required for interfacing between nanoscale building blocks, as the way nature uses to software and hardware in the form of machine language form complex biological systems using macromolecules with a well defined set of parameters. The instruction sets and proteins. It shows a cheap alternative to convenhave to be designed in such a way that they must support tional top-down methods. The self-assembled soft nanothe provided execution model. structures are formed by the integration and joining of How to provide a Memory System Nanoelectronics with nanomaterials. The common appliThe memory collection and storage be the crucial part for cation of bottom-up approach is the molecular electroncomputing devices and systems. It is required for storics. Molecular electronics deals with the fabrication of ing data/information for the future use and memory is electronic materials or devices using biological or organic provided through accumulators in the instruction sets for assigning them bits for storage of data. molecules for enhancing the electronic, optical or magnetic How interfacing can be achieved to the micro-scale properties. It can also be used for fabricating sophistiThe interfacing of nano-scale systems with micro-scale cated devices as integrated circuits using molecules instead systems is the main component and requires a lot of attenof using other technologies. The characterized molecular tion and logic to be defined for achieving it. There should blocks can be used for providing new techniques for archibe possible input/output interface for providing communitectures and also for non-linear devices and memories with cation between them. The architecture should be able to electronic functionality.81 82 define and explain the sets of operation required for the Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) play an important role in interfacing between I/O interfacing between these systems. the field of molecular electronics, as they have invariant

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electronic and mechanical properties.6 The characterized ordered arrays of nanotubes with the length and diameter control can be formed with the help of carbon nanotubes fabrication techniques. The most common and established methods are the laser ablation and arc discharge with metal doped carbon for the production of high quality single walled nanotubes. Due to the intrinsic functionalities of DNA as self-assembly, molecular recognition and replication, they are crucial for making of molecular nanodevices. Due to their unique physical, electrical and mechanical properties CNTs are also used in biomedical applications.6–9 DNA is also used for quantum computing and providing template for molecular/nano wiring. These DNA networks can be made by using a bottom-up approach. The nanowires up to 5 nm can be synthesized by polymerizing DNA strand.18 DNA based assembly of nanometer and micrometer scale structures have a significant and effective role in the field of electronics.14 And the structures formed can be used in microelectronics beyond 100 nm node. The sugar phosphate presents in the DNA that carries four nucleotide bases provides the strength to DNA strands to form complex nanostructures with the help of self-assembly and molecular recognition. The complimentary base pairs (A-T, C-G) present in DNA-helix forms helix with base pair and can have long lengths.26 DNA strands have the mechanical andDelivered molecularbyrecognition Ingenta to: York University Libraries properties, but they are lacking inIP: electrical properties 5.189.201.29 On:toTue, 21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 Copyright: use in further applications. Hence, different metalsAmerican as sil- Scientific Publishers ver, gold, palladium, platinum and copper, etc. have been metalized with DNA strands to use them as conducting nanowire.37–39 Braun et al. demonstrated the working of the DNA molecule as a template for the controlled growth of a 12 nm long and 100 nm wide conducting silver nanowire.83 The fabrication procedure is represented in Figure 8. DNA was connected between oligonucleotides, the oligonucleotides connected to the gold electrodes having disulphide ends.84–88 The formed DNA oligonucleotides were reacted with the solution of Ag2+ ions. As the result, the ions get attached to the negatively charged phosphate of the DNA molecules. Ford et al. showed the binding of (hydroxymethyl) phosphine-Au (THP-Au) particles with nucleic acid to produce a metal nanoparticle nucleic acid composite13 and also they patented their work.13 82 They obtained their platinated composites by treating platinated DNA with the borohydride ion. By using this method, the nanometer Fig. 8. Formation of conducting silver nanowire with DNA. sized nucleation sites were developed for the deposition 89–91 of gold. This process further leads to the bonding of Pt2+ ions to electron pair within the nucleic acid and distributed in the DNA molecule was in the range between may be termed as platination of DNA. Dichloro(2,2:6 ,2 1–7 nm. Richter et al. studied the effect of palladium on terpyridine)platinum(II), [Pt(terpy)Cl]Cl was used as platiDNA strands and explained the highly conductive pallanating agents. As per their study the height of the particles dium nanowires on DNA templates.92 The metallic clusters 88

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containing DNA were formed by the activation of the template by treatment with Palladium complexes for binding with DNA molecule.92–99

Fig. 9. Image for DNA-field effect transistor (FET) using metallic multi walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT).

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Fig. 10.

Electro-osmotic flow of DNA.

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middle part remains free to interact with foreign particles. Electro-osmotic flow may also be used for explaining the stretching of DNA. Due to the effect of high frequency and intensity field, there is alignment of DNA parallel to the field with the help of polarization and electrostatic ori3.1. DNA Based Transistors entation. This leads to the formation of straight shape of In this aspect there are number of Field Effect TransisDNA through stretching. The charged particles are shifted tors (FETs) design have been proposed, they can provide a towards the electrodes by dielectrophoresis and particles way for the future quantum computing. Scaling transistors are arranged towards the edge of one end of the eleccan also be used as they provide better transistor density trode. This technique can be used for achieving permanent per unit area, improve the switching speed and reduce the anchored by using electrochemical active metal.103–105 power dissipation. By using this, the need for smaller and Masao showed that the dissection and acquisition of the faster logical devices can be increased. targeted location of DNA.105 First, DNA is stretched and Sasaki et al. suggested DNA based FETs, using metalpositioned on the electrode edge, and adsorbed onto the lic multi walled nanotubes (MWNTs) electrodes serving 14 surface. Then the targeted portion is dissected with the as a nano-scale source and drain electrodes. They used help of AFM tips and the DNA fragments are recovered DNA as poly (dG)-(dC) DNA molecules, which show 100 to a tube. The molecular damage caused by mechanical a p-type semiconductor behavior and properties. Wei dissection is enzymatically removed and then an oligonuet al. patented their work, for the study of fabricated car15 cleotide with known sequence (88 base, double strand bon nanotube gate FETs. They explained the logic of + AAA at one end) is attached to it.105–108 Electro-osmosis using a sub-50 nm complementary CNT FET using two is defined as the flow of mobile electric charge or ion in a perpendicularly crossed single-wall CNT (SWNT) bundles solution due to the Coulomb force induced with the help of as the gate and the channel interchangeably (Fig. 9). electric field. It leads to the formation of a layer of mobile Ben Jacob et al. in their patented work suggested an ions or electrical double layer near the solid/liquid interapproach to use the chemical bonds present in DNA to 16 face. It has large velocity, which provides suitable conbuild logical devices. Since this type of devices operditions for stretching chain-like nano-polymers as DNA ates on the single electron effect, they show extremely (Fig.University 10). The Libraries direction and speed of the flow can be fast and stable characteristics dueDelivered to stability chemi-to: York by of Ingenta by simply changing the polarity and magnitude IP: of 5.189.201.29 On: Tue, controlled 21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 cal bonds. The complicated networks identical elements American Scientific applied inPublishers the electrolyte solution. Electro-osmosis is comcan be constructed and fabricated by Copyright: using self-assembly monly used as the chemical separation techniques.109–114 methodologies.101 102 Turner et al. have demonstrated the electronic transport in DNA. They observed that the localization lengths of 3.2. Electronic Manipulations in DNA DNA allow electron motion among base pairs.104 They The high frequency and intensity field are used for stretchconcluded that the charge transfer in DNA may be of ing of DNA in aqueous solution to form straight shape sequence dependent.6 104 115 Burke et al. have demonand immobilized towards the electrodes. When the length strated the electronic manipulation of DNA and nanoparof DNA is equal to the electrode gap, then the DNA can ticles for circuit assembly using gold electrodes.116 They be immobilized towards both ends of the electrode and have measured out the electrical resistance of the DNA through dielectrophoresis and it is found to be larger than 40 M.5 17 116

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4. APPLICATIONS OF BIO-NANOELECTRONICS DEVICES

lab-on-chip device applications. Their performance property generally varies according to their size and shape of the arrays. The studies demand the investigation of vari4.1. Biosensing Applications ous parameters for better understanding of Biomolecular Biomolecules provides the characteristics and path for bioadsorption and absorption properties of cantilever arrays. logical processes. They are used in many applications as But they play a significant role in various common applifor single electron charge transfer devices. On combining cations to the consumers as of health and the environment. with electronics, they tend to form Bio-Nanoelectronics Raiteri et al. have also reported the sensing of devices which provide high sensitivity and conductivity biomolecules with the help of cantilever sensors.120 The properties. The electronic properties of biomolecules on concept of DNA hybridization has played vital role in the fabricating with nanomaterials are enhanced and make themselves a suitable candidate for building blocks in sensing of biomarkers as well as biomolecules. They have the fields of Nanoelectronics devices and systems at explained the working of cantilever deflection detection nano level. The molecular interactions between them tend and their integration with biomolecules. They suggested to form the molecular junctions. These junctions are various cantilever detection activities for the detection of required for the detection of single electron conductance enzymes, antibodies, proteins and organic biomolecules for biomolecules such as proteins, azurin etc. Artesa et al. and their studies helps in the future development of fabrihave demonstrated that the nanoscale charge transfer in cated arrays which will provide ways for smart and inteproteins and DNA through self-assembled electronics.117 grated lab-on-chip MEMS devices or integrated on a single They explained the fundamental theory related to sinsilicon chip. gle molecule techniques for proteins and functionalized With this, the silica, iron and gold nanoparticles are also DNA and the electron transfer pathways for the proteins contributing in various applications of Nanotechnology. and DNA. By the results, they successfully derived a These functionalized nanoparticles can be used in various general theory for the demonstration of electron transfer applications as of designing of probes for the detection of in single molecule DNA for oligonucleotides. The elecenzymatic as well as NMR detection.113–115 tronic characterization of single molecule proteins and Tanaka et al. have synthesized and fabricated these funcoligonucleotides has many applications in the field of Biotionalized nanoparticles and explained their roles in differNanoelectronics devices.97–99 117 ent applications of Nano-biotechnology.121 They concluded Delivered by of Ingenta University Libraries Angione et al. have showed the integration bioma-to: York that these nanoparticles IP: 5.189.201.29 On: Tue, 21 Jun 2016 05:52:04 can be used as a regulator for terials with nanomaterials and represented a wide range Scientific Copyright: American Publishers NMR signals and also as building blocks for fabrication of of applications in the field of medicine and diagnostics.118 bio-related materials. This leads to the future development They used the organic material fabricated biodegradable of various bio and electronic based nano devices. substrates for the purposes of sensing and detection. They Chen et al. explained electrical nanogap devices for the have diffused the organic field effect transistors with vardetection of biomolecules at nano level. They reported the ious biomaterials as proteins, amino acids and aptamers. electrical sensing properties of these devices. They studThe carbon nanotubes and nanowires are mainly used for ied carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles for the detecthe detection and biosensing applications. They are intetion of biosensing.122 They have shown the detection of grated with DNA to form conducting nanowire sensors biomolecules with the help of hybridized and fabricated with micro fluidics sensors with enabling chip hybridizaDNA strands with conducting polymers such that over cartion. The feasibility of using the biological pump with bon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles and able to trace the the help of nanotubes to control the Nanoelectronics cirvery small quantities of antibodies, enzymes or proteins. cuit and may be used for the designing of hybrid BioThus, this leads to the development of solid state biosenNanoelectronics transistor using protein gate fabricated sors or a lab-on-chip device with nano fluidic components. with lipid membrane. The new techniques helped in the Skolov et al. have reported the methods for obtaining development of new hybrid biomaterials integrated into low cost fabricated electronic biosensors for the detecelectronic devices of being fabricated on substrates. This tion of biomolecules.123 They reported the fabrication of leads to the formation of newly electronically active med116–118 organic thin film transistors for the sensing applications at ical devices and diagnostics tools. nano scale. These devices can be used for gas and liquid Boisen et al. have studied the fabrication of microfabriphase molecular sensing applications. cated cantilever arrays for complex detection of biomarkZoriy et al. have measured metal imaging technology ers in real time with high sensitivity and can be integrated on surface of Micro- and Nano-electronics devices at into the multiplexed sensor system.119 These cantilever nano scale.124 They have developed mass spectroscopy arrays have shown high flexibility and sensitivity propmethod for measurements of selected metals, fabricated for erties over the surfaces. These polymeric cantilevers are Bio-Nanoelectronics devices. They established LA-ICPfabricated with various materials such as gold, silver, carMS method for electronic distribution on the surface of bon, etc. These cantilevers are generally used in biosensIDA chip. These methods help for analyzing integration of ing applications. They can also contribute to the future of 90

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Table I. Applications of DNA based bio-nanoelectronics.

Sr. no. 1.

DNA based bio-nanoelectrical devices

2.

Conducting nanowires/nanotubes Atomic manipulations

3.

Molecular motors

4. 5.

Electronics devices Data storage

6.

Nanomedicine

7.

Cryptography

8.

Gene mapping

Properties Sensing applications Enhancement of semiconducting properties Actuators and artificial machines FET’s and logical devices Half and full adders, encoders and decoders Target and control release of drug Encryption and decryption, molecular recognition Quantum and biomolecular computation Check and control of bioengineered devices/systems

9. Biological microprocessors 4.2. Recent Developments in Biomolecular Nanoelectronics Devices Self-assembled bio-electronic devices have many applications in the field of biosensing and Biomolecular Nanoelectronics. Arya et al. have represented various 5. CONCLUSIONS applications of self-assembled monolayers for the detecThe role of DNA in various applications are thoroughly tion of biomolecules with the help of these devices.127 investigated and explained. The self assembled devices They explained about the enzymatic and nucleic acid based and networks through recombinant DNA have shown biosensing with the help of self-assembled monolayers and major advances in the formation of Nanoelectronics ciralso for immunosensors. With this, they also explained cuits, conducting templates and architectures for them. The various applications of the self-assembled DNA strands have unique application in relation to self Deliveredmonolayers by Ingentainto: York University Libraries On: Tue, assembly. 21 Jun 2016 the field of bio-electronics namelyIP: for5.189.201.29 molecular imprintThe 05:52:04 electronic manipulations in the DNA are Copyright: American Scientific Publishers ing, protein templating, biomolecular junctions, transistors, clearly explained with the help of DNA nanowires and biophotoactive devices, biochips for sophisticated systems they are used for making electronic circuits based on the and for atomic manipulations and interactions for single self organizing. DNA nanowires are also used in the field electron charge devices.126–128 Thus, self-assembly techof sensing with the effect of change in chemical potenniques and growth of layers for fabrication of devices have tial which may lead to have a variable conductance or shown recent advances over other technologies and used electrical conductivity properties. Due to the varying propin many applications due to their unique and enhanced erties of these self-assembled DNA nanowires, they can electrical and optical properties. So, they can also be used be used in medical and biological applications and also for the development of nano-optoelectronic devices having have conjunctions which work as the link between biologorganic monolayer of bio-molecules. This will represent ical electronics and optical devices. The fabricated DNA an idea for the construction of sophisticated and comnanotubes are used for detection purposes. They are used plex integrated network nanostructures and lab-on-chip for the fabrication of electronic devices to form the DNA devices. biosensors for the targeted studies. DNA nanotubes and Due to their unique electrical, physical, chemical and nanowires can also be used for making logical devices optical properties, the DNA based systems and devices as for quantum computing and for making field effect can be used in many industrial applications.87–91 Contintransistors. DNA FET’s can be made with the help of uously the researchers and scientists are developing new metallic and conducting nanotube electrodes serving as methods and techniques to make the use of such devices the source and drain electrodes. These studies suggest that easier and better. As the need for faster and logical, calDNAs play a vital and influencing role in the field of elecculating devices increases, there may be a lot of work has tronics and later on they can be used for the fabrication to be done. Lab-on-chip, integrated circuits or chips and of micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) and nano memory devices may be developed by using this highly electromechanical systems (NEMS). More applications for sophisticated techniques.100–105 128–137 self-assembled DNAs, biosensors and electromechanical The highly sophisticated and future applications of and electro-optical devices can be expected to develop DNA based bio-nanoelectrical devices are illustrated in the using these techniques and methods. By using these technologies, there may be expectations for the development of Table I, which provides a key link to the future develophighly sophisticated and characterized lab-on-chip devices. ment of molecular nanoelctronics devices (Table I).

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Bio-Nanoelectronics devices of complex structures in the field of Bioengineering. Haruyama, in his paper, showed the approaches for the use Nanobiotechnology for biosensing cellular responses.125 They used fabricated devices and noted the detection of a signal from cultures cells and tissues by interfacing with complex structures. These cellular signals can be used in pharmaceutical and medical applications. Williams et al. have fabricated silicon nanowire devices for the detection of real-time electrical detection for the formation and destruction of lipid layers.126 The fabricated sensor silicon chip shows high sensitivity for the surface detection of lipid bilayers. These devices contribute towards the development of biosensing BioNanoelectronics devices.

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References and Notes

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