Research Knowledge Assessment

RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT 17

Running Head: RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT 1







Research Knowledge Assessment
Buthaina Ruyyashi
EDUC 8102
Walden University
August 10, 2014







Abstract
The purpose of this research is to explain different research designs such as quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and their philosophies and core concepts, as well as other known research designs. The content of this paper also shows the history of research designs and how they were developed and changed over the years. Both primary and secondary sources were used to accomplish explaining those designs. And finally it shows that every research can determine its own method and design based on its purpose and its audience.












Philosophy of Research
To the novice, the word "research" may sound very abstract or even complicated, but once a person starts to understand how different phases can fit together and make up a research project, he or she will realize that it is not as complicated as they think. Research projects are structured to have a beginning, middle, and end (Web center for social research methods, 2006).
Empiricism in Relation to Quantitative Research Methodology
Empiricism means experience, it is derived from the Greek word empeiria. Empiricism and quantitative research methodology are related since quantitative data is collected from surveys (Lodico et al., 2010) and other descriptive measurement instruments. Empiricism, and the use of quantitative method emphasizes evidence for acquiring knowledge based on scientific experimentation. A research hypothesis must be supported by hard evidence that is analyzed statistically (Darrell Rowbottom, 2014).
Scientific Method, Positivism, and Post-positivism
Scientific methods of research uses several steps, (1) general question identifying a problem, (2) narrowing down, (3) designing the experiment, (4) observation, (5) analysis, (6) conclusions and publishing, and (7) cycles (Shuttleworth, 2014). Positivists adopt empiricism: it means that the core of scientific endeavor is observation and measurement, they believe that science purposefully uses experiments to learn the truth and only deals with measuring what can be seen. Positivism defined science as a mechanical affair. Scientists hypothesize theories for their studies, then they test them for approval, and if not approved, they revise them to make them better predict reality.
Post-positivist simply rejects the central tenets of positivism, they believe that common sense and scientific reasoning are the same practice; simply implying that causes determine effects (Creswell, 2009; Lodico et al., 2010). Critical realism is the most common form of post-positivism. A critical realist believes that science can be used to study a reality that is independent of one's own thinking.
To get a better picture of what is happening in reality, a post-positivist emphasizes the need to use triangulation to observe and assess different measures that could be fallible. Post-positivist view the people as constructivists in which they see the world around them from their own perception of it. Since people's perception of the world is fallible then their construction of it is imperfect. Moreover, post-positivists, unlike positivists, believe that even scientists cannot be objective and be able to put aside their biases and see the world the way it is. (Web center for social research methods, 2006). One important observation when it comes to research is objectivity as it is very important in order to keep the legitimacy of the data collected.
The Importance and Challenges of Objectivity in Research.
Objectivity in most contexts refer to fairness, it is to see things and tell them the way they are (Eizner, 1992). It is a very important ideal in educational research; if a source of knowledge gets accused of being subjective it loses its credibility and importance. A researcher must be objective in in when conducting a research and should be able to uncover a reality that exists without contaminating it in anyway (Baskas, 2011). As humans, we are biased by nature, and are theory-laden. For a researcher, to avoid biases and achieve objectivity, it is important to triangulate across different fallible perspectives, and to make achieving objectivity a common goal when criticizing each other's work (Web center for social research methods, 2006). No one can fully achieve objectivity; according to Eisner (1992), no one believes that complete objectivity is possible, but that we ought to be as objective as we can. Objectivity has a great effect on understanding how various research results can develop different philosophical views (Baskas, 2011).
Philosophical Developments in Educational Research
In recent years, research started to move away from a hard distinction between qualitative and quantitative methods, and is separated into groups based on their philosophical framework. Each framework can decide which approach to use, qualitative or quantitative.
Scientific realism. This framework takes on a purely quantitative approach to research and can be found in the positivist arguments. Scientific realists assume that research can accurately capture an existing real social and psychological worlds. They also assume that research can study the social and psychological world the same way that it studies the natural world, and the key to doing that is to break down complex phenomena into smaller parts such as constructs and variables (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2006).
Social constructivism. This framework takes on purely qualitative research approach and is referred to as interpretive, constructivist, or naturalistic. Social constructivists, unlike scientific realists, argue that phenomena must not be broken down to be studied, instead, they must be understood as a complex whole, and from the context-specific perspective. They believe that humans construct the reality in a way most appropriate to their personal experiences, therefore they believe that during the process of conducting a research, the initial set of questions will certainly be modified as the research progresses into more advance stages. Social constructivism require the researcher to interact with the participants and be involved with them in order to capture the reality of their world through their eyes (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2006).
Advocacy/liberatory. This framework mainly uses qualitative approach, but might also use quantitative if needed for social change. Its essential goal is to liberate by gathering knowledge, Paulo Freire (1921- 1997) as cited by Lodico (2010 ) argued that the purpose of research should be to provide freedom from oppression and bad living environments. Advocacy-liberatory investigators believe that research should be used to empower people and help them improve their place in society just as much as gathering knowledge (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2006).
Pragmatism. Pragmatist researchers' main focus is the 'what' and the 'how' of the research, and concentrates on what works in a specific situation (Creswell, 2003, p.11; Lodico et al., 2010). They consider the research question or problem as the center of the research, therefore, data collection and analysis methods are dependent on the question. Pragmatists consider a theory to be good if it helps people to accomplish a particular goal.
Similarities and Differences between Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks.
It is not easy choosing the right framework when conducting a research, many times, researchers get to choose between two equally popular frameworks, theoretical and conceptual. Many researchers often times get confused on which one to use because of similarities between the two, although there are many differences in style and approach (Olivia, 2011). Theoretical framework is based on theories that have been previously tested by other researchers. It reflects relationships that can be generalized between things in a phenomenon. Conceptual framework runs delineation of the input and output in a research project that is the direction missing in theoretical framework. Concepts and relationships are the loose set of ideas that may need to be tested to fully understand the relationship amongst them.
Conceptual Frameworks and Research Study
Educational researchers use conceptual frameworks to aim and frame their research question and properly identify the problem they are looking to investigate. In doing this conceptual framework leads researchers to develop theories and establish solid relationships.
Core Concepts for Research Design
Conducting a research requires a step by step planning process, starting from identifying a general question, narrowing it down to a more specific aspect, then begin observing and analyzing this aspect to make a conclusion that can be generalized to the real world (Lodico et al., 2010).
Identifying a Research Question, a Hypothesis, and a Problem
First step in research process is to clearly identify all issues or problems (Creswell, 2009). This helps researchers focus on the issue and develop and refine a research topic that can lead to a hypothesis, a question for their research, and a research design. The hypothesis, design method, and data collection process will all be focused around the research question through different angles in order to dig deep and provide a supported answer to the research question (Lodico et al., 2010). A hypothesis can be a null-hypothesis or an alternative-hypothesis in which the first tries to disapprove or challenge an aspect, whereas the second tries to find an alternative hypothesis to replace the first (Blakstad, 2008).
Purpose of a Research Study
Through the purpose of the study, the researcher explains in a purpose statement, the final conclusions that the researcher hope to get from the study, and describe the rationale of the study. Researchers usually start with a general purpose of the study or a synapsis then narrow it down to a more specific purpose that will express and clarify key concepts identified in the study. The statement of purpose is stated differently depending on whether the method is qualitative or quantitative (Korb, 2013). Purpose statement contents and topic of interest can lead to the development of the literature review of the study (Baskas, 2011).
Literature Review
A research's meaningful literature review is one that demonstrates the contribution of something new. Webster and Watson (2002) described a literature review as an effective one if it "creates a firm foundation for advancing knowledge. It facilitates theory development, choses areas where a plethora of research exists, and uncovers areas where research is needed" (p. 13).
According to Webster and Watson (2002) an effective literature review accomplishes several characteristics: it helps the researcher identify where additional research exists, and where new research is needed, it helps in providing a firm theoretical base for the anticipated study, it helps clearly identify what knowledge is needed, and it helps in the justification of the contribution of new knowledge from the study. It helps in defining the method, approach, goal, and research question of the study. Reviewing many different literatures and studies leads to refining the initial research question or continue to examine more literature that is more specific to the research question. Once the literature review is done, the researcher will have a better idea of who to sample to participate in the study.
Population and Sample.
For a study to be valid and reliable, it's important to pay special attention to the sampling process and the population from where the sample will be taken. Certain populations have special interest and significance to researchers. Using the whole population for the study is the ultimate way to have accurate results, but it is impossible form both a resource and a strategic perspectives, which is why researchers choose individuals from a population and make a sample that is representative of the population. There are several sampling types that researchers can chose from, including a convenience sample, a random sample, and a stratified sample. Considering different populations and sampling can constitute what variables need to be included in the study (Baskas, 2011).
Variables in Research
There are three categories of variables that should be identified in every research experiment: (1) dependent (what will be measured and affected during the study), (2) Independent (what will affect the dependent variable and be varied during the study), and (3) controlled (what should be eliminated in order not to affect the direction or results of the study) (Define the Variables, 2014). Once variables are identified and a proposal has been written, researchers will then move on to reporting the findings.
Reporting Findings
Before they report the findings, researchers must be sure of the objectivity of the findings. The sequence of reporting should be orderly and logical using means of past tense texts and illustration as needed. Researchers should organize their findings in a logical order around tables, illustration, and figures. They should start by reporting key results using texts, and as they proceed to further explanation, they should refer the reader to the figures and tables needed. Positive results as well as negative results should be reported and without interpretations. Boundaries and assumptions that defines the study should be taken into consideration by the findings of the study (Baskas, 2011).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions are necessary for the research, but are out of researchers' control. Researchers must justify their assumptions and those assumptions must be true for their study to progress. For example, the honesty of the participants.
Limitations are potential weaknesses in a study and are also out of the researchers' control. When using convenience sampling for example, results cannot be generalized in to a larger population, but can only be suggested. Researchers must explain how they plan on dealing with the limitation in order for them not to affect the outcome of the study.
Delimitations are characteristics that defines the boundaries of a study, and are usually under the researchers' control. Delimitations include the research question, variables of interest, the choice of objectives, theoretical perspective that the researcher adopt, and the population that a researcher choose to investigate (Simon, 2011).
It is essential for a study to explicate the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the investigation in order to accurately communicate what a research could accomplish without exaggerating, and also to test for validity and reliability (Simon, 2011).
Validity and Reliability of Research
Validity in research is the ability for a test to measure what it's intended to measure. Research should check how valid a test is in relation to its context such as format, purpose, and population. When a study is conducted, it's important to demonstrate the cause and effect relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The way a study is conducted should allow researchers to make a statement about people at large, or what is referred to as generalizability. If a study is able to generalize its results to a larger population, then the study is considered to have a high external validity. External validity cannot be achieved without first achieving an internal validity and that can be done by eliminating confounding variables within the study itself (Price, 2000).
Other Approaches to Research
There are other research methods that can be used in studies other than the traditional methods.
Advantages and Disadvantaged of Program Evaluation Methods
A program evaluation is a strategy organized around a question of interest to provide information to answer the question. A questions is considered to be a good evaluation question if it suggests sources for information to be used and methods of collecting and using these sources. Program evaluations and the evaluation question are divided into two categories: Formative and summative evaluations.
Formative evaluation focuses on the improvement of the program and on reporting issues or problems of the project (Lodico, 2010). So as the operation of creation and implementation of the program start, so does the formative evaluation in order to improve the program, and to make changes if necessary in a timely manner. The data collection methods, such as phone calls, memos, or presentations can start early during the program and continue at different points in time during the program's implementation process. There are sometimes concerns about new program's basic implementations and how to transfer them from ideas on papers to a real life working projects. This kind of concern falls within the boundary of formative assessment that can guide the projects implementation overtime and help with its improvement.
Formative evaluation can be time consuming and it might deviate the implementation process from its original planned process (Office of medical education research and development, 2014).
Summative evaluation focuses on the products, results, or impact of the program evaluation and their relations to the overall judgment of the program. Summative evaluation usually takes place once issues of the program's operations have been resolved, typically in the late stages of the program implementation or at the end of the project (Lodico et al., 2010). The summative method is the most traditional in evaluating finished work, and so its program improvement might not be immediate and it may sometimes affects other programs rather than the one under evaluation (Office of medical education research and development, 2014).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Other Research Designs
Action research. Action research is a research that improves and acquires knowledge at the same time. It uses a natural cycle of acting and reviewing work, some of its features assist the action and some assists the research. Action research does not differentiate between the decision makers and the ones who carry on the decision, instead they both corporately decide on what is to be done. Action research is also referred to as a teacher research (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993, as cited by Lodico et al., 2010), a practitioner research (Anderso, Herr, & Nihlen 1994, as cited by Lodico et al., 2010), and emancipator praxis (Lewin, 1948, as cited by Lodico et al., 2010).
Action research starts with imprecise questions and methods that at first provide inaccurate answers. The inaccuracy of the answers can help in the refinements of the methods and the questions, and as the study advances, each cycle will produce better action and an improved research (Alara, 2012). Since the researchers in action research carry on the study in their own work setting, they have the potential of producing change quickly, unlike quantitative and qualitative which represent data with numbers or narrations (Baskas, 2011).
Qualitative design. In a qualitative approach, data collection and analysis happen at the same time (Creswell, 2008; Creswell, 2009; Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010). The vast amount of data is collected using interviews with open ended questions and field notes, which means fewer restrictions or assumption (Baskas, 2011). It is inductive in nature which leads to the generation of hypothesis; Lodico (2010) stated, "… this means that numerous small pieces of data are collected and gradually combined or related to form broader, more general descriptions and conclusions" (p. 301). 
Some disadvantage of the qualitative approach are: the difficulty to determine the validity and reliability of the data collected. The amount of influence that the researcher could have over the results and his or her biased views in its interpretation. It is also very time consuming and requires lots of resources.
Quantitative design. In the quantitative approach, the research must measure, analyze data, and study the relationships between the dependent and independent variables in detail. Researcher can be objective about the findings of the research since all data being analyzed come from numbers that are valid and reliable.
A disadvantage of the quantitative approach is that not much attention is given to the context of the study. It does not take into consideration the setting or interpretation of data as it may mean to the participants like qualitative design does. For quantitative research to be more accurate, a large sample of the population must be studied (Johns, 2011)
Mixed methods design. In mixed methods approach, most researchers conduct it in two phases, starting with a qualitative observation phase, then quantitative analysis techniques to approve or disapprove the first phase. Mixed methods designs use both qualitative and quantitative approaches in the same study, which makes the research more comprehensive and expands it in a way that a single approach cannot (Moss, 2014).
One disadvantage of mixed methods design is that it loses its flexibility and depth when quantitating qualitative data. Another one of its disadvantages is the limitation of the statistical measure (i.e variance and t-test) on quantitated data. Finally it takes a very experienced researcher to conduct both qualitative and quantitative methods designs at the same time (Ion, 2003).
Conclusion
At the end of this research paper, I found it to be very interesting how research takes place, and how it helps achieve social change in societies. It is also great to learn the flexibility in the way of conducting research and the stages that research went through from past to present. To follow a particular type of research design is important, and it is equally important to follow specific steps to conduct a successful research. These steps start with a problem statement, literature review, methodology, and finally conclude results. Many researchers interpret these results to make a possible change in society, or to make bases for new-future research.






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