Researching Contemporary Cosmologies - Interviews: Aims, Designs, Practicalities

Interviews:

Aims, Design, Prac4cali4es Week 3, Researching Contemporary Cosmologies MA Dr Fiona Bowie, Sophia Centre

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What is an Interview? •  As the name suggests, an interview generally differs from a survey in that it involves face-to-face communica4on (although it is also possible to interview by Skype or telephone, or other on-line methods). •  It is generally a conversa4on between one or more interviewers and one or more interviewees – most oOen one-to-one. •  Compared to using a ques4onnaire, an interview is a much more intensive process, and more open-ended. It is more geared towards finding out what the interviewee thinks. •  Hennink, HuSer and Bailey refer to this as an emic or insider view, although in anthropology, as opposed to sociology, interview material is likely to be treated as somewhere between emic and e4c (outsider) material. •  Unless it is a spontaneous conversa4on, the topic, place and process is s4ll very much controlled by the interviewer. Recommended reading: Hennink, HuSer and Bailey, Qualita*ve Research Methods, Chapter 6, In-depth Interviews. 2

In-depth interviewing Involves: •  Using a semi-structured interview guide to prompt the data collec4on; •  Establishing a rapport (a trust rela4onship) between the interviewer and interviewee; •  Asking ques4ons in an open, empathic way; •  Mo*va*ng the interviewee to tell their story by probing.

Hennink, HuSer and Bailey, Qualita*ve Research Methods, Chapter 6, p.109 3

Conversa4ons Structured

Semistructured

An interview can take the form of a structured or unstructured conversa4on. The purpose of the conversa4on, topics to be covered, 4me and place would generally be agreed in advance, and the method of recording and purpose determined ahead of 4me. A semistructured interview may move into a more conversa4onal mode and back again.

Unstructured 4

Establishing a rapport “For my dialogues, I chose individuals I knew, ensuring a trus4ng exchange. The occasional recorded encounter with rela4ve strangers failed. Unease inhibited free dialogue. The majority of my dialogues were recorded in either the anthropologists’ or my home space, with notable excep4ons…. Many anthropologists trusted me to turn off the … machine at important, some4mes drama4c junctures…The anthropologists had the confidence to reveal hitherto hidden, unrecorded aspects of fieldwork. The extended, vivid quota4ons eventually pushed earlier chapter draOs to the edges.”

Berg, 2013, p.3.

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Key points 1.  Okely interviewed people she knew, and had a trus4ng rela4onship with. 2. Chose a loca4on in which people feel at ease, when possible. 3. Respected confidences and did not record without permission. 4. Made full use of quota4ons and stories from interviews/conversa4ons in wri4ng up. 6

When to conduct an in-depth interview When you want to capture: •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

How people make decisions; People’s own beliefs and percep*ons; The mo4va4on for certain behaviour; The meaning people aSach to experiences; People’s feelings and emo*ons; The personal story or biography of a par4cipant; In-depth informa4on on sensi*ve issues; The context surrounding people’s lives.

Hennink, HuSer and Bailey, Qualita*ve Research Methods, Chapter 6, p.110. 7

Types of informa4on •  Narra*ves about people’s lives. Usually tape recorded and transcribed. •  The subjec*vity of the interviewee. Their iden4ty and background characteris4cs, e.g. sex, age, religion, language, ethnicity, occupa4on, family, interests… •  What is appropriate will depend on the purpose of your interview so you will need to think about what you need to know to help make sense of their narra4ve. •  The context in which the interviewee lives. Seeing someone in their home sehng can help provide context, combining observa4on with interview. Case Study: Daniel Miller, The Comfort of Things. Polity: Cambridge (2008). Over 17 months anthropologist Danny Miller and his PhD student, Fiona ParroS, interviewed the inhabitants of a single street in South London to explore the rela4onships between people, the rela4onships people had with themselves, seen through the lens of the objects they have around them. 8

The prac4cali4es of interviewing Danny Miller describes some of the prac4cal constraints to doing field work: ‘At first we were pleased to have chosen such a long street, which promised a good mix of inhabitants, but within a few days the downside of this selec4on became apparent. At the 4me we didn’t know anyone well enough simply to ask to use their loo, and the pub was closed during the day. So, ini4ally, we were desperate to find people to interview, to gain access to their bathroom as much as to their insights. Knocking cold on strangers’ doors has always filled me with terror, so perhaps this extra incen4ve helped. Gradually things improved. As we went from knowing ten, then forty, then finally one hundred people, it became more a case that we couldn’t walk for five minutes without mee4ng people we knew and stopping for a chat’ (p.299). 9

Narra*ve, subjec*vity, context Harry simply knew that there was nothing interes*ng about him whatsoever, and therefore we would just be was*ng our *me .(…) It was important to remain formal with Harry. He would have preferred us to have had a proper, fixed ques*onnaire instead of following him down every byway of conversa*on. He was reassured rather than disturbed by our liKle digital recorder, which at least signalled that this was proper work. There was only one being for whom (…) Harry was unequivocally the most important person on the planet, the object of total devo*on, love and interest, and that was Harry’s dog Jeff. (…) When, on our second aKempt, Harry actually allowed us into his house, this was probably because the one thing he really didn’t mind was that we may have come to meet his dog. (…) we somehow can’t help feeling that, as far as Harry is concerned, we are only speaking to him in place of the true inhabitant of the house, the person who really maKers here: the animal siQng pa*ently in the corner. This impression is reinforced by the aesthe*cs of the living-room. At first it looks typical enough for any bachelor (…) but as one looks down rather than up, the room becomes progressively doggified. The carpet is a brown beige that matches precisely the outside of the dog’s paws as they stand upon it. The furniture is either black or a darker brown, which are also Jeff’s predominant colours. Everything seemed to blend together, so that one is drawn to describe the room itself, and not just the dog, as moKled brown and black. (Chapter 10: Talk to the Dog, pp.100-102)

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Developing an interview guide A list of ques4ons developed by the interviewer as an aide memoire during the interview. Ques4onnaire + respondent – closed ques4ons that people respond to. Interview + interviewee – a conversa4on in which the interviewee par4cipates. •  •  •  • 

Introduc)on: Introduce yourself, ethics, consent, recording etc. Opening ques)ons: Build a rapport with interviewee and introduce main topic. Key ques)ons: Central part of the interview guide. Closing ques)ons: Broader ques4ons and opportunity for interviewee to ask ques4ons and respond.

Have a look at the Interview Guide in QRM, pp.114-116.

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Example: Ques4ons for the Anthropologist, by Judith Okely, Anthropological Prac*ce, p.155. 1. 

2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8. 

What were, if any, your ini4al ideas: In what way, if any, were they changed in the field? How did you establish connec4ons? Were there any key events/ encounters? Did serendipity play a part? How did you go about your research? What were the most successful approaches? What were the least successful approaches? Did you learn by your mistakes?

9.  In what ways did you use (a) par4cipant observa4on and (b) interviewing; structured or semistructured? 10. Did you learn with your body and all your senses? 11. What, if at all, was the importance of memory? 12. Who were your main informants or associates? 13. What, if any, were the effects on rapport and your approach of your gender/age/’race’/ethnicity/ na4onality/and personality?

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Okely cont. 14. How did you record and make use of field notes? 15. Did photography or other images feature in your research? 16. What was the role of memory in your analysis? Okely takes interviewees through the chronological steps of the fieldwork process via her ques4ons.

Remember the design cycle – pilot and refine your ques*ons as you go along. If you are recording, test for volume and take spare baKeries or charger. Transcribe or write up the interviews as you go along. Code data using key words and search terms so that you can retrieve it later. 13

Framing the ques4on- The way you present the topic can affect the tone of the interview and answers.

- How will very specific research ques4ons determine the outcome? - Will interviewees feel obliged to give the answers they think you want or need? - Will this reduce the value of the interview data?

- Do you want to invite personal reflec4ons? - Are there cultural barriers to understanding what you want?

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It can be very helpful to go through your first few interviews with a friend or tutor. Discuss your performance and the kind of answers you are gehng. Do you need to adjust your style or the ques4ons? It is the right way to get data for your research project? Are you asking the right people?

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Interac4ve interviews •  There is a con4nuum from structured interviews in which the interviewer does not express an opinion to a fully interac4ve interview in which there is an exchange of informa4on, and the interviewer shares something of themselves. –  Decide what style is most appropriate for you; remember, things might not go as you expect. Some interviewees might be comfortable in a formal seQng, others expect and demand your par*cipa*on.

•  Be flexible. You have control of the ques4ons, sehng, conduct of the interview and interpreta4on of it, but your interviewee might try to reconstruct the interview to suit their situa4on. –  Are they more concerned to establish a friendship? –  Do they want to put across a par*cular view of themselves or a situa*on and to recruit you to their ‘side’? –  Are your ques*ons inappropriate for that person? BE PREPARED TO ADAPT AND CHANGE – BE SENSITIVE TO THE SITUATION

It’s all data to be interpreted and analysed – there is no ‘failed’ interview 16

Recording the interview •  Decide in advance how you will record the data. –  Digital recorder, such as smart phone app or computer microphone? –  Do you want audio or video? –  Will you use a soOware transcrip4on package? –  Are you going to transcribe it aOerwards, or just take notes from it? –  If recording, test the recording levels before star4ng. Maybe have a backup.

•  There are different ways of interviewing on-line. –  –  –  – 

Skype Face4me (Free Apple soOware) Facebook messenger Various apps

•  If you are planning to record it, which is desirable, test your soOware first.

•  Note taking –  Will you take brief notes, perhaps in shorthand and write up later? –  Always a good idea, even if you are recording, to have some wriSen notes.

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Learning to listen Listening is a skill that can be learnt with prac4ce. •  Think about where you and your interviewee are sihng, are you both comfortable and at ease? •  Do they feel valued or simply used? •  Are you genuinely interested in them and in what they have to say? •  What will they get out of the interac4on? •  When they are speaking you need to both monitor what they are saying and where you are going but also be genuinely open to the person in front of you and their experience.

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Enjoy the experience – interviewing is a way of sharing other people’s lives and a great privilege! 19

Recommended reading and references Bell, Judith (2006) Doing Your Research Project. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 9, Planning and Conduc4ng Interviews. (Good clear introduc4on to the topic with examples). Bryman, Alan (2005) Quanity and Quality in Social Research. Abingdon: Routledge. PP.45-50, 114-118 (good on some of the problems with interviewing). Davies, CharloSe Aull (1999) Reflexive Ethnography: A Guide to Researching Selves and Others. Abingdon: Routledge. Chapter 5, Interviewing. Hennink, M., HuSer, I. and Bailey, A. (2011) Qualita*ve Research Methods. Sage: London. Chapter 6, In-depth Interviews. Miller, Daniel (2008) The Comfort of Things. Cambridge: Polity. Especially Epilogue and Appendix, which discuss the process and ra4onale of interviewing in this study. Okely, Judith (2012) Anthropological Prac*ce: Fieldwork and the Ethnographic Method. London: Berg. Especially Chapter One, Theore4cal and Historical Overview. 20