Rural Economic Development

Statement of warning
The essence of this work is to draw a parallel line between management in the organizational setting and broader administrative arrangement in which public managers like presidents, governors, mayors, city managers, bureau chiefs, secretaries and community leaders run public affairs. The following words might be used interchangeably:
Organization – Community
Employee – Community members
Managers – community leaders.










Introduction
Living in this time and age is really very peculiar because of the requirements of the time. The level of knowledge available at the click of a button is very enormous, making access to information limitless. Therefore, it is quite imperative to be choosy with the information that throws itself at you when searching. Digging the well of knowledge is a deliberate effort whose precise scope has to be pre-determined to get the desired results. Setting the tone for the focus of this paper, the quest to find the right answers to the numerous challenges of rural areas is imperative for stability, survival, self sustainability, and positive co-existence of rural communities in finding relevance and strategic positioning given the complex diversities of today's world. A community according to Willkinson (1991) "is a territory – community exist in a place," "a community is a whole or a 'gestalt' of social life" meaning that communities have both intra and inter-relationships within and outside its boundaries, and "community has a common identity or solidarity" (p.81). Given these perspectives, relationships, interdependence and meaningful coexistence are vital elements of any community, benefiting from proximity factor and confronting challenges in unison. The concept of community seeks to do away with the individualistic tendencies while embracing the spirit of unity, togetherness and connectivity to earn double reward for the slightest investment of time, money, goodwill and whatever else. This describes community collaboration. How can sustainable development be achieved in the face numerous challenges that rural communities constantly face? Renn (2005) provided a view point to the concept of sustainable development as a type of societal development that makes it possible for future generations have any essential resources left to use. This definition provides an interesting perspective of the concept of sustainable development in relation to local communities because development of any significant relevance must be sustainable. Knowledge in my opinion is useless if it is not applicable to real life situations. In other words, translating head knowledge into practical use is a direct measure of its worth and relevance. The purpose of this paper is to determine how rural communities can benefit from principles and functions of management so that rural communities can find their rightful place in the larger societal setting. Management can be viewed as an industry, a field of study, a tool for action and strategy development, or as an organizational driver. Naturally, it is assumed that a failed organization is the result of a failed management, suggesting that an organization or in this case, the community is only as good as its management or its leadership. It is the responsibility of rural leadership to plan and organize rural resources and structure its implementation for development and maximum advantage. Nyerere (1968) maintained that "rural development is the participation of people in a mutual learning experience involving themselves, their local resources, and external change agents and outside resources" (cited in Oakley et al. 1991). The future of rural communities totally lies in the hands of visionary leadership that is able to employ local resources for maximum benefits. This paper seeks to find the meeting point between management principles and rural economic development. How can management principles be used as an instrument to revitalize rural economies? Given the prospects and challenges of management, how can rural economies benefit from the concepts of management? How can we plan, organize, employ resources, lead, communicate and control rural resources, for optimum benefit to rural economies? What other concepts of management can rural communities benefit from? How can management principles translate into a tool to achieve rural economic development? This paper seeks to bring head knowledge into practical application as far as rural economies are concerned. King et al. (2004) explained that "in the last decade of the twentieth century, a number of rural areas decimated by chronic poverty due to the decline in the manufacturing and agricultural economy that had sustained them turned to prison sitting as a means of economic development." (p.1). Survival is a natural instinct in every man. The effect of global economic crunch impacted countries and their economic sectors in varying degrees but no nation was totally immune from it. Its impact in the manufacturing and agricultural sectors directly affected rural economies necessitating the need to find other means of survival. Rural leaders then sought other options apart from these two. The double-dose effect of this problem on rural economies made rural life twice as hard, when compared with city life. The ability of rural areas to compete with urban cities in a world that the impact of globalization and technological advancement has reduced to a global village does not seem fair and quite questionable given the fact that the resources available in both settings are not exactly the same. The rural landscape being jeopardized by poverty, rural-urban migration among others, necessitates the need to employ all known strategies to offer right and practicable solutions. Lichter and Jenson (2000) relate that "non-metropolitan poverty remains higher than metro poverty and slightly lower than poverty in central cities." In its quest to fight poverty and prevent rural-urban migration, rural communities must strategize to maximize the use of its limited resources to achieve economic development despite all odds. In the same vein, this paper seeks to employ management principles and functions to achieve this task.
What is Management?
The limitations of man have informed his strategy to overcome his day-to-day challenges, necessitating the need to cooperate with each other to achieve his goals and objectives. One of man's primary objectives for doing business or venturing into collaboration at the community level is to achieve optimum profit in business, or moving the community from where it is today to where it can be tomorrow. Robbins and Stuart-Kotze (1990) defined management as "the process of completing activities efficiently with and through others" (p.20). Achieving any set target as defined by this definition is only possible through planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling functions of management. When people cooperate to work towards achieving a common goal, they achieve better results than they would have if they work in isolation. Management as a field of study has been defined by different authors, each reflecting the individual's orientation, backgrounds, experience, levels of exposure, personalities and divergent point of views. However, it is important that the definition must be framed to meet up with today's realities. Although there are a thousand and one definitions by different authors of the topic, the basic contents remain intact in most definition. A few definitions will be considered in this paper to properly bring the subject of management to perspective in relation to rural economic development. Koontz and O'Donnel (1964) defined management as "the accomplishment of desired objectives by establishing an environment favorable to performance by people operating in organized groups." The ingredients in this definition includes: people, environment, organization and an objective. Donnelly, et al. (1978) submitted that "management consists of activities undertaken by one or more persons to coordinate the activities of other persons to achieve results not achievable by one or more persons acting alone". This suggests that co-operation is a vital tool to achieve a common goal. The power of synergy makes any task more easily achievable.
Functions of Management
Different authors have identified a number of management functions and interpreted them differently; however, the following are always present: planning, organizing, leading or directing, control, staffing and communication. Schermerhorn et al. (1988) identified four basic management functions which include the first four. The management of an organization is the one in control of its affairs. When the organization is doing well at achieving its objectives, the management gets all the praise. When it is not, the same gets the blame. Therefore these functions have to be carefully examined and properly implemented by managers. Community leaders must do same to achieve the community's pre-determined goals and objectives.
Planning is certainly the most important function of management as every other function stems out of it. There is no organizational or community problem that is not traceable to planning. Robbins and Stuart-Kotze (1990) defined planning as "encompasses defining the organizations objectives or goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving these goals and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and activities" (p.163). It is essential because it largely minimize risk factors and also ensures effective performance. It is the process of determining the objectives, and the stages of development that leads towards the achievement of the organization's pre-determined goals. Planning is primarily and most importantly decision making, carefully selecting the objectives, policies, programs and procedures for achieving them. It amounts to thinking through the process before taking the first action. Planning is largely the managers' responsibility and making the right decisions among several alternative options is within his duties. The knowledge that his decision could make or mar the organization's interest and could even totally jeopardize the existence of the organization necessitates the need to take calculated risks.
Organizing involves the structural process of engaging organization's human, natural, financial and material resources for optimal benefits. It enumerates the interactions among the ranks and file, in relation with the other forms of resources of the organization or community so that there is unity of purpose throughout the entire operation. It involves the strategy of determining and enumerating activities that are instrumental to achieving organization's pre-determined objectives. Robbins and Stuart-Kotze (1990) sees organizing as the "systematic arrangement of people to accomplish a specific purpose" (p.19). Organizing in itself is not an end, but a means to an end. In relation to community, organizing involves the process through which we relate one with another, systematically, at the community level, leading to the achievement of the community pre-determined goals.
Staffing refers to the hiring the right people for the job. Koontz and O'Donnell (1964) defined staffing as involving manning and keeping manned, the positions provided for by the organization structure. This includes the selection process of candidates for job positioning, their appraisal on the job, training and re-training to keep staff members at the cutting edge of excellence.
Leadership is influence. It is the responsibility of the leadership to influence the followership to consciously imbibe a new mental attitude as reflected from the leader. According to Rost (1993), the concept of leadership "is an influence relationship among leaders and collaborators who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes"(p.99). It is the process of providing directions for others in positive way and never dictatorially. It is a skill required to affect people or more specifically, organization's employees to behave and think in a way that leads to the achievement of the organization goals. It refers to the capacity to positively affect or influence behavior and character. Allen (1964) implied that people must be led, and that they perform best under leaders who are creative, imaginative and aggressive – under leaders who lead. Bracey, Sanford and Quick (1981) defined leadership as "a complex process influenced by many variables in addition to those of leaders themselves." "The essence of leadership is interpersonal influence, involving the influencer in an attempt to affect the behavior of the influencee." He defined leadership "as interpersonal influence towards the attainment of specific goals in specific situations." There are also different leadership styles.
Communication was coined from the Latin word "communis" which means to share. Usually, the process of communication shows the sender as the originator of the message, using a channel to convey the message to the receiver. The message must be carefully and encoded in a way that would be understood by the receiver, such that the intent of the message is not thwarted before the message gets to the receiver. Valenzuela, and Scherba (1992) defined communication as an "act by which one person gives or receives from another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge or effective states. Communication maybe intentional or unintentional signal, may take linguistic or non linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes." The ability of management to communicate the organization's visions with simplicity, accuracy and precision such that everyone in the ranks and file of the organization can pursue the goal is crucial to the achievement of the set objectives.
The essence of control is to enforce compliance to pre-determined objectives and the plans that lead there. It is important however, to establish at this point that the planning functions must precede the control functions of management. This is the corrective functions that measures performance while working at achieving pre-determined objectives.
Planning: A Tool for Rural Economic Development.
Planning the rural environment can be viewed from different perspectives because resources differ in tangibility, measure and complexities. These factors have to be considered in determining the planning process that will be appropriate for the resource in question, in relation to the needs of the local community. Lassey (1977) explained that "the adapted institutional design in local jurisdiction should provide for local involvement of public and must incorporate a wider array of agencies and organizations. The specific organizational structure will vary according to local preferences or requirements" (p.230). However, rural planning must of a necessity have the following elements: a local planning management unit that relates directly with government at the level of the executive, legislature and judiciary to bridge the gap between government and the local people, a subunit or staff competence whose duty is to generate and create access to basic information required for the planning duties, a subunit for analyzing and projecting information as a basis for both short-range and long range goal formation and a subunit with competence in public involvement and implementation of planning decisions. Generally, resources are categorized into human, material, financial and natural resources. The requirements to plan and implement strategies for each resource differ from one resource to another. The rural environment like any other is constantly changing, as new trends in agriculture, technology and manufacturing slowly but surely impacts on rural structural landscape. Ability to adapting to the changes in the environment is a requirement to maintain stability, despite the challenges that change brings. Simply put, planning refers to strategies employed to cope with change and its potential negative consequences. Rural planning according to Lassey (1977) is defined "as the process of identifying the complex factors which contribute to the creation, change or development of a social and/ or physical entity (i.e., community, region, business etc.)." It provides a coping mechanism to deal with the dynamism of change. Katz (2006) admitted change has been one constant thing in life, emphasizing that as human beings, we are constantly changing and if institutions, organizations and communities are made up of people who are constantly changing, it is only expected that those institutions, organizations and communities will change also. Having the right preparation and attitude to change is good, influencing the way other perceive same is better. Strategy provides a structure to conceptualize and deal with change. Putting these together in my own words, strategic planning is the brainstorming and implementation with an assessment of the past, in today's realities for future advantage. In other words, strategic planning provides enough room to think through the process before the first action. At the community level, planning involves rural people in determining what they have seen as a challenge and how they intend to overcome them. Planning involves brainstorming through the process, which on the long-run minimize costs and eliminate wastes. The need to articulate the systematic process of rural planning cannot be over-emphasized. Bendayan (2008) analyzed five stages of top level strategic planning which includes: "defining the organization's business mission, evaluating the evaluation (situational analysis), setting organizational objectives, planning the business portfolio and developing growth strategies" (pg.43). This is largely applicable in the community setting by simply replacing 'organization' with 'community'. Chaskin et al. (2001) refers to community as a "geographical area that is recognizable by a set of attributes tied to its physical location or appearance, such as national boundaries, a recognized history, demographic patterns, or the presence and work within it of particular industries or organizations." The very first step in the planning process is to recognize who you are, what makes us peculiar, what are our strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Recognition of all the positive and negative factors are important parts of the planning process. Although all communities have varying degrees of these parameters, every single community has something to peculiar to it, which if harnessed can be a potential for growth and development. Mitchell and Coghill (2000) submitted that "Elora, Ontario has long been revered for its scenic, architectural and artistic amenities. These attributes have facilitated its transformation into a heritage shopping village, one whose economy is based, in part on the production and consumption of hand crafted products reflecting local, regional and national heritage." Elora is a local community in Ontario that has found artistic amenities as a tool to develop its economy. Although the article painted a negative picture through what was tagged the "model of creative destruction," which I disagree with but somewhere along the line, artistic amenities was identified as a tool for economic development. This came out of a planning process to develop Elora's local economy. Although it may not have been deliberately done but the local economy has benefited from the planning process. Planning as a tool for local economic development must be comprehensive, persistent, flexible and plainly visible to every member of the community, for it to be effective. Moncrief and Vanderhoofven (2006) expressly admitted that "the economic future of the struggling economies across the countries will come from those communities themselves, based on local assets, local ideas, and driven by local entrepreneurs" (p29). How can local economies improve without a deliberate efforts channeled through planning and organizing local resources to achieve pre-determined vision of a preferred future. The future of rural economic development is never anywhere else. Local people have to take a deliberate decision to translate the vision in their mind into practical reality with or without any assistance from anywhere. Otherwise, they will wait forever for help that is never going to arrive. Goodwin (1988) described the process of community based economic development as being "characterized by a high level of community involvement rather than using outside consultants extensively" (p.87). This process is mostly seen to be slow, but more often produce longer lasting results.
Organizing: A tool for economic development
Resources all over the world are scattered in varying degrees across different continents, countries and communities around the globe. Therefore, while some communities have so much, others are not as fortunate, but in all, every community has something to offer the world. Its natural, human, material and financial resources require proper organization to yield optimum and measurable results for the common good of the community. Efforts to harness community resources and build capacity have given birth to Community Development Corporations CDCs, non-profit, community based organizations, targeting growths through alliance. Nye and Glickman (2000) submitted that "CDCs are community controlled and pursue a comprehensive vision of community change to revitalize economic, physical and social conditions to benefit local residents."(pg.163). They further explained that in recent years, the terms "community organizations" and "Neighborhood groups" refer to Community Development Corporation CDCs. Mcshane and Steen (2012) defined organizations as "groups of people who work independently towards some purpose." The actions taken by these independent people are all targeted at achieving the unified purpose of the organization, and in this case, the local community development. Every members of the community has some measure of independence at sharing information, materials and expertise with each other and by so doing, the organization or community can achieve its objectives. The arrangement of systems, processes and procedures targeted at harmonizing various activities that cumulate towards achieving the organizational objectives is referred to as organizing. Therefore, the processes and procedures for the use and interactions among the community's human, natural, material, financial and physical resources to yield measurable and substantial positive results fits the definition of organizing.
Staffing: A took of economic development
In relation to the organization, staffing refers to hiring the right people for the right job so the organization can leverage on the employees expertise to achieve its goals and objectives. This function of management is not in any way less important to other functions of management. Imagine a hospital hiring a quack for a medical doctor. This function of management is at the so important to make organization attain its full potential in terms of growth. In the same vein, local communities must leverage on the capacity of community members to achieve its goals and objectives. Chaskin (2001) described "community capacity as the interaction of community capital, organizational resources, and social capital exiting within a given community that can be leveraged to solve collective problems and improve or maintain the well-being of the community. It may operate through informal social process and or organized efforts by individuals, organizations and social networks that exist among them and between them and the larger system of which the community is a part." (pg.7) Community capacity building however employs the use of community resources (capitals) to reach community's pre- determined goals and objectives. Developing community capacity is mostly directly related to the way community functions, targeting community well-being through the improvement of community organizations, informal groups, individuals, social networks and the physical environment. Labonte & Laverack (2001a) defined capacity building as the increase in community groups' ability to define, access, analyze and act on health (or any other) concerns of importance to their members." (pg 114) Two words I have found very useful. They include: "capacity" and "ability." These words expresses improvement in abilities to interact and deal with a known problem. Relating staffing as a function of management with community capacity building is of critical importance because while management works at employing the right people in the right positions within the organization, community capacity building seeks to improve the community capacity as a tool for achieving community goal and objectives.


Leadership: A Tool for Economic Development.
Leadership as an economic development tool is a hundred percent relationship based. Greene (2012) described leadership as "influencing, motivating and enabling others to contribute towards the effectiveness and success of the organization of which they are members." (P.327). Achieving effective leadership is a step ahead from normal requirement. Bennis and Nanus (1985) explained that "effective leadership can move organizations from current to future state, create visions of potential opportunities for organizations, instill within employees commitment to change and instill new cultures and strategies in organizations that mobilize and focus energy and resources" (P.17). The words 'organization' and 'employees' in this definition can simply be replaced with communities and 'community members' respectively. For the purpose of this paper, leadership work towards achieving community's predetermined goals by influencing, motivating and enabling community members towards the goals. Glaser (2005) implied a leader as an effective problem solver, collaborators and consensus builder involving old adversarial and competitive habits with attitudes that maximize the potential for collaboration and teaming. He further "described the need for an aspiring problem solving leader to manage basic human instinct for fight and flight through responses that will be more conducive to producing agreements in groups in our complex modern world." (Pg.1) Leadership engenders community collaboration, while mapping out a vision for the future. It looks ahead and positions the community for future challenges. In other words, the scope of vision determines your quality as a leader. The leader always have the responsibility to sell his vision of a preferred future in a persuasive way to make other people believe it enough to pursue it and make it a reality. The community leader must possess the ability to communicate in very clear terms, the vision for the future and convincingly enough for community members to pursue together, so they can achieve it together. Leadership is never by position, but by separation. Therefore, vision, responsibility, communication and influence play important roles in separating a leader from the laity. Fairhom (1994) described "leadership as an expression of collective community action…something something that happens as a result of a leader and stakeholder collaborating action…(the) unified action of leaders and followers working together to jointly achieve mutual goals" (P3). Leadership is only as effective as his impact on the community.
Communication: a tool for economic development
The importance of communication in any human endeavor is very critical to achieving any meaningful result as it forms the basis for interaction and relationships. Ferrell (2011) explained that "the success of communication system within the organization has tremendous effect on the overall success of the firm. Communication mistakes can lower productivity and morale" (pg.185). In the community setting, communication flows in a variety directions, vertically and horizontally. Its vertical flow relates to leader-laity relations and horizontal exemplifying information sharing among colleagues. These forms of communication can be face-to-face among the ranks and file using technology to communicate across distances remotely located. The ability of community leaders to effectively communicate the vision, directions and the stages of development that leads there, in a way that is easily understood by everyone plays a critical role in achieving the desired results. The structural arrangement of the society plays a vital role in determining the best form of communication that fits that community. The sizes, location, number of people involved among others are factors determining the channel that carries the message with minimum level of distortion. Any fault at the level of communication could have far-reaching consequences on the success of the venture. A break-down in communication in the community is never constructive in any way. Rather, it could totally destroy any form of successes achieved in the past. In other words, communication could strengthen or weaken the bond of relationships among community members.

Conclusions
The concepts and functions of management is a framework that is applicable in a community setting. If organizations and local communities are made up of people who are constantly changing every day, then the dynamism often evident in organizations and communities should not come as a shock. The broad scope of education has enlarged perspectives and empowered people to think deeper and better, approaching the same issue from different points of view, with more critical and analytical reasoning. Management will fail if it misses out on relationships. Communities will shrink if the essence of relationship is underrated. In other words, interactions and interrelationships are non-negotiable if organizations and communities must work and achieve their bidden. Planning interactions, organizing resources, employing the right people to serve in their capacity of competence, leading people, communicating with them and controlling those resources to minimize costs and maximize gains are all different perspectives of relationship. Therefore, community economic development or any venture at all is only achievable if socio-interaction is encouraged to succeed. Good results can be achieved working alone if focused and determined to succeed, the potentials for success is limitless engaging people of like minds, who share the same vision and team spirit, targeting the same goal. Rural economies stand a better chance if united in one spirit against their common problems. Rural leaders must then begin to work toward incorporating every community member into the main stream of local polity. Gender, financial stand, personality differences, level of education or any of such should not be allowed to divide the community, diminishing the potentials. Rather, the contribution of every community member should be encouraged and valued.


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