The Sarakenos Cave at Akraephnion, Boeotia, Greece Vol. II The Early Neolithic, the Mesolithic and the Final Palaeolithic (Excavations in Trench A)
EDITED BY
MAŁGORZATA KACZANOWSKA JANUSZ K. KOZŁOWSKI ADAMANTIOS SAMPSON
THE POLISH ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Kraków 2016
The laboratory and field research was supported by Polish National Science Center (NCN) grant no 2011/03/B/HS3/01446
On the cover: 1. View of the cave, 2. Trench A – Neolithic and Mesolithic layers, 3. Hearth in layer 3, 4. Bone awl from layer 2.
© Copyright by Polska Akademia Umiejętności, Kraków 2016 ISBN 978-83-7676-236-4 Distributed by Polska Akademia Umiejętności ul. Sławkowska 17, 31-016 Kraków e-mail:
[email protected] www.pau.krakow.pl
DTP: Elżbieta Fidler-Źrałka
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K.Kozłowski, Adamantios Sampson
CHAPTER 2
STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE
13
2.2 STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE IN TRENCH A: COMPLEX II, LAYERS 2-12 - FROM THE EARLY NEOLITHIC TO THE PALAEOLITHIC Tomasz Goslar, Tomasz Kalicki, Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
18
CHAPTER
13
2.1 THE EXCAVATION AND THE STRATIGRAPHY FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE TO THE MIDDLE NEOLITHIC (COMPLEX I) IN TRENCHES A AND C Adamantios Sampson
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4
9
UPPER SERIES MIDDLE SERIES LOWER SERIES BAYESIAN CHRONOLOGICAL MODEL
30
3
MICROMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF THE SEDIMENTS Anna Budek 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8
18 25 29
METHODS OF INVESTIGATIONS GENERAL FEATURES THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 2 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 3 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 3/4 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 4 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 5 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 6
35 35 35 42 43 45 46 46
46
CHAPTER 4
CHARCOAL REMAINS Magdalena Moskal del Hoyo, Maria Ntinou 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHOD RESULTS DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
49 49 50 55
59
CHAPTER 5
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIROMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE Jarosław Wilczyński, Teresa Tomek, Adam Nadachowski, Barbara Miękina, Barbara Rzebik-Kowalska, Andrea Pereswiet-Soltan, Ewa Stworzewicz, Zbigniew Szyndlar, Adrian Marciszak, Lembi Lõugas 63 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
INTRODUCTION RESULTS DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS
63 64 78 80
CHAPTER 6
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD Jarosław Wilczyński, Teresa Tomek, Alex Pryor
81
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
81 81 82 88 89
INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD RESULTS SEASONALITY DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 7
HUMAN REMAINS
91
7.1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF MESOLITHIC AND FINAL PALAEOLITHIC HUMAN REMAINS Wiesław Lorkiewicz, Elżbieta Żądzińska 91 7.2 FINAL PALAEOLITHIC HUMAN TOOTH FROM LAYER 7 Nickos A. Poulianos
97
CHAPTER 8
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS Malgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
LAYER 2 – EARLY NEOLITHIC LAYER 3 – INITIAL NEOLITHIC CONTACT ZONES BETWEEN LAYERS 2, 3, 4 LAYER 4 – MESOLITHIC LAYERS 5-10 – FINAL PALAEOLITHIC LAYER 11 – MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC (?)
CHAPTER 9
DISCUSSION
99 99 102 104 105 106 108
125
9.1 HUMAN OCCUPATIONS AND ACTIVITIES FROM THE MIDDLE HELLADIC TO THE MIDDLE NEOLITHIC Adamantios Sampson
125
9.2 TAXONOMIC POSITION AND FUNCTION OF THE CAVE IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
127
9.3 TAXONOMY, CHRONOLOGY AND FUNCTION OF THE CAVE DURING THE SEDIMENTATION OF LAYER 3 Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
130
9.4 MESOLITHIC LAYER 4: CHRONOLOGY, TAXONOMY AND FUNCTION Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
131
9.5 FINAL PALAEOLITHIC OCCUPATIONS Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
132
CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSIONS Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Tomasz Kalicki, Janusz K. Kozłowski, Magdalena Moskal del Hoyo, Jarosław Wilczyński
133
REFERENCES
137
APPENDIX THE MOLLUSCAN MATERIAL FROM COMPLEX I LAYERS (MIDDLE NEOLITHIC TO BRONZE AGE) Lilian Karali
151
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
161
CHAPTER
6
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD Jarosław Wilczyński, Teresa Tomek, Alex Pryor
6.1. INTRODUCTION This paper presents the results of archaeozoological studies of animal remains discovered in trench A at Sarakenos cave in Beotia, Greece. Excavation of this cave started in the early 1970’s, and the material which was used in this study come from recent fieldwork carried out in the period 2004-13. Therefore, results of our studies presented here do not include materials from the Eneolithic and Middle Helladic period, but are concentrated on the material obtained from the latest research carried out in trench A, and covering the period from the Pleistocene till Neolithic (Sampson et al. 2009; Chapter
2.2 in this humans par volume). Due to detailed description of material discovered here, it was possible to describe numerous traces of human activity as well as to demonstrate in which animal bone accumulation humans participated, and which accumulations resulted from natural factors - mainly the predation of birds. Because of its location, Sarakenos Cave has a specific faunal record. A decisive role was played by hindered access to the cave entrance located on the rocky wall. For this reason large carnivores bones as well as remains of their victims are missing in faunal record of this cave.
6.2. MATERIAL AND METHOD remains of small mammals including rodents, bats and insectivores. The state of preservation of the osteological material is good, only a smart part of the bones is covered by calcium carbonate. The bone remains were identified based on comparative material in the collection of the Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kraków, and publications concerning the anatomy of large Pleistocene mammalian species (Gromova 1950; Pales, Garcia 1981a, 1981b). Two quantified calculations were made of the remains – NISP (Number of Identified Specimens) and MNI (Minimum Number of Individual Animals), (Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984; Lyman 1994). There was also a determined minimum number of skeletal elements (MNE).
Excavations at Sarakenos Cave unearthed several thousand animal bones - mainly remains of birds, medium size ruminants and rodents. Other groups of animals are less frequent especially fishes or carnivores represented only by single bones. Faunal remains have been found in all layers, collected during the regular exploration (see Chapter 5 in this volume), accompanied by infrequent archaeological materials (see Chapter 8 in this volume). For our study whole bone material were separated into four main faunal assemblages: Early Neolithic (layer 2), Initial Neolithic (layer 3), Mesolithic (layer 4) and Palaeolithic/Pleistocene (layers 5-11). Unfortunately sediment samples were not taken for wet sieving, but the exact collection of the remains what allowed to obtain numerous 81
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
All the bone remains were subjected to detailed observations in order to identify the marks left by humans, carnivores and rodents. Animal bones were examined closely to document all possible modifications, namely the traces of processes caused by human activity including cut marks, percussion marks and traces of burning (Bennet 1999; Binford 1981; Buikstra, Swegle 1989; Lyman 1994; Olsen, Shipman 1988; Shipman et al. 1984; Stiner et al. 1995). All palaeontological material was carefully inspected using a strong directional light. When desirable, each mark was examined under low-power magnification. The location of each cut mark was noted and all of them were
photographed. In the case of the reindeer bones, it was possible to distinguish marks that occurred during the skinning, dismembering and filleting processes using Binford’s (1981) criteria. Some of the aforementioned criteria were also used for interpreting cut marks on the bones of other taxa. Bones from Sarakenos cave were also examined to find carnivore modifications especially gnawing marks. This damage has been described based on numerous papers (Binford 1981; Haynes 1980, 1983; Lyman 1994). Thin sections of dental cementum were also studied on a subset of teeth to determine the season of death (for a description of methodologies see Lieberman 1994).
6.3. RESULTS hunters - especially rock partridge (Alectoris graeca), the most numerous species represented in Pleistocene layers. Apart from numerous remains of birds in the Pleistocene assemblage are relatively numerous are remains of large ruminants - European wild ass (Equus hydruntinus) and aurochs (Bos primigenius). Among remains of European wild ass we could mention mainly isolated teeth (N=13) and single tarsal bones. These belong to a minimum of two individuals - adult and juvenile as indicated by a different degree of tooth wear. Although remains of this species are not numerous (NISP=15) two bones showing cut marks associated with the dismembering of the carcasses were noticed. They were described at talus and third tarsal bone (magnum) and they clearly indicate that the discovered remains are related with human hunting activities (Fig. 6-1). Remains of aurochs (Bos primigenius) belongs to a single adult individual, characterised of the large dimensions. Among them the most numerous are teeth (N=10) and mandibule fragments (N=5). Moreover a fragment of metacarpale, pelvis and first phalanx were described also. On the remains of those specimens no signs of cut marks related with skinning or dismembering of the carcass were noticed, but a metacarpal bone bearing marks of inten-
The most abundant materials were obtained from Pleistocene assemblage (Table 6-1). Similar, although less frequent material, was discovered at Mesolithic layer, where lack of the medium or large mammal remains is noticed. Neolithic assemblages (layer 3 and 2), contain far less numerous faunal assemblages, among which remains of domesticated animals - mostly goats or sheep predominate. FINAL PALAEOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES (LAYERS 5-10) In the Pleistocene layers the richest - as well as in terms of the amount of remains and the described species - faunal assemblage was discovered. It is dominated by the remains of birds, while among mammals the presence of bones and teeth of European wild ass, aurochs and European rabbit is worth mentioning (Table 6-1). Concerning the Pleistocene assemblage larger sizes birds have been described i.e. having a body weight of more than 0.5 kg like geese, ducks, grebes and coots (see: Chapter 5). Although on described bird remains no signs of cuts marks or burnt were noticed, their significant share in this assemblage may suggest that these species were victims of Palaeolithic 82
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD
Chronology Classes Fishes
Birds
Taxa
Artiodactyls
Lagomorphs
Mesolithic
Initial Neolithic
Early Neolithic
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
Tuna tuna (tuna)
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
Alectoris graeca (rock partridge)
691
50
3
1
1
1
3
1
Columba cf. livia (pigeon)
482
35
150
11
12
2
32
6
Sturnus vulgaris (starling)
10
2
166
14
6
2
3
1
1014
128
229
46
39
11
20
10
Equus hydruntinus (European wild ass)
15
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
Bos primigenius (aurochs)
Other taxa Perrisodactyls
Palaeolithic NISP
18
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Bos Taurus (cattle)
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
Cervidae
-
-
1
1
1
1
-
-
Capra hircus/Ovis arries (goat/sheep)
-
-
-
-
114
4
236
4
Sus scrofa (wild boar)
4
1
2
1
-
-
-
-
Sus scrofa f. domestica (pig)
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
1
116
5
1
1
2
1
-
-
2350
224
552
75
175
22
303
25
Lepus europaeus (European hare) Total
Table 6-1. Selected animal specimens discovered at particular chronological units from Sarakenos Cave expressed as number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI). Grey colour indicates the most numerous and important species described from each assemblage.
tional splitting for marrow extraction could be described. Among the ruminant remains discovered in the Pleistocene assemblage, single bones of wild boar (Sus scrofa) were described: three isolated teeth and proximal part of ulna which belongs to an adult individual. In the Pleistocene layers large numbers of European hare (Lepus europaeus) remains were discovered (Table 6-1). They belong mainly to not fully mature individuals and comes from all skeleton parts. Due to the age structure of the hare remains and lack of signs of human activity like cut marks, burning etc. we could suppose that all these bones are a result of a natural accumulation. This suggestion is also supported by the presence of a puncture marks created during birds hunting (Fig. 6-2) as well as information that Leporids are an important source of food for a large number of non-human predators (terrestrial carnivores, diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey) (Lloveras et al. 2008).
Fig. 6-1. European wild ass (Equus hydruntinus) third tarsal bone (magnum) with cut marks.
83
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
is not numerous, dominated by goat/sheep remains, accompanied by bones of small birds (especially pigeon) and mammals (e.g. bats, rodents) deposited here as a results of natural accumulation (Table 6-1). Discovery of two fragments of marine shells of Arca noae is also noteworthy. Remains of goat/sheep belongs to minimum 4 individuals, and comes from all parts of skeleton – skull, axial skeleton, hind and limb bones (Table 6-2). Especially numerous are cranium fragments and isolated teeth, vertebra, ribs as well as humerus and radius bones. Based on the teeth eruption and their abrasion, we could state that most of the goat/sheep individuals belongs to young animals below 1.5 years old. Numerous marks created during carcass processing were noticed on the goat/sheep bones. We should mention cut marks visible at atlas and occipital condyle of skull created during cutting the head from the body (Fig. 6-3), three cut marks visible on ribs and a single mark noticed on young individual radius shaft. Also four signs of burning at mandible, metacarpal, calcaneus and patella are visible. Other mammal remains are represented by fragment of Cervidae antler and two bones of
Fig. 6-2. European hare (Lepus europaeus) pelvis fragment with puncture mark created during birds hunting.
Moreover at the Pleistocene assemblage relatively numerous remains of a large mammal were noticed. These are mostly fragments of long bones that probably belong to two species of large ruminants recorded in Pleistocene layers e.g. Equus hydruntinus and Bos primigenius. MESOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGE (LAYER 4) Among animal remains discovered within the Mesolithic layer bones of small birds like starling and pigeon clearly dominate (Table 6-1). In contrast, only single remains of large mammals were described: two bones of wild boar (a fragment of humerus and maxilla) and single phalanx of Cervidae. At those remains no signs of human activity was described. Moreover apart from the animal remains a single human mandible and not numerous lithic artefacts were discovered (see Chapter 7). INITIAL NEOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGE (LAYER 3) From the layer 3 not numerous Initial Neolithic artefacts were discovered (see Chapter 7.2 in this volume). Also animal bone assemblage
Fig. 6-3. Skull of goat/sheep (Capra hircus /Ovis arries) with cut marks visible on occipital condyle.
84
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD
Skeleton element
NISP
NISP
NISP
NISP
MNE
MNE
MNE
MNE
dex
sin
indet
Total
dex
sin
indet
Total
9
9
1
1
Cranial bone Maxilla Upper isolated teeth
5
4
9
5
4
9
Cranium total
5
4
9
18
5
4
1
10
Mandibular bone
2
2
1
5
1
2
1
4
Lower isolated teeth
3
4
1
8
Mandibule total
5
6
2
13
1
2
1
4
11
11
Isolated teeth indet. Sternebrae Atlas
1
1
1
1
Axis
1
1
1
1
Cervicals II-VII Thoracic
4
4
2
2
Lumbar
4
4
2
2
2
2
8
8
Sacrum Caudal
2
2
Vertebrae indet.
1
1
Vertebrae total
13
13
Scapula Humerus
1
4
5
1
4
5
Radius
1
3
4
1
2
3
Ulna
1
1
2
4
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
Carpals Metacarpal
1
Innominate
1
Femur
1
1
1
1
Patella
1
1
1
1
Tibia
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
Os malleolare
1
1 1
2
1
1
Fibula Calcaneus
1
1
1
1
Astragalus Tarsals
1
1
1
1
Metatarsal
1
1
1
1
Reduced metapodium Metapodial Phalanx I Phalanx II
(cont.)
85
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
Phalanx III
3
3
31
31
76
114
2
2
15
29
Reduced phalanx I Reduced phalanx II Reduced phalanx III Phalanx total Sesamoids Long bone fragments Ribs Total NISP/MNE
19
19
15
14
Table 6-2. Skeletal element representation of goat/sheep (Capra hircus /Ovis arries), expressed as NISP, and MNE at Initial Neolithic layer 3 of Sarakenos Cave.
European rabbit. If fragment of antler could be associated with human presence/activity, remains of rabbit were probably deposited as a the results of natural accumulation. Only a single bone discovered in layer 3 bears marks of gnawing (distal part goat/sheep radius). Unfortunately we could not state if it was created by a wild animal or (most probably) dog, but as well as in the case of Neolithic layer they were probably created by dogs, rather than some wild carnivores.
bone fragments - especially hind limbs as well as phalanxes. The age structure of individuals included here may suggest that the material is dominated by juveniles killed at the age of >1.5 years old. Considering the animal remains signs of human activity related mainly with consumption (burned bones created during roasting) are numerous, but also wholly burned bones were discovered (Fig. 6-5). Traces of fire are observed on 24 bones (more than 10% of the all goat/sheep remains) and occurred at all skeleton parts: skull and teeth (N=7), humerus (N=1), metacarpal (N=1), femur (N=2), tibia (N=1), metatarsal (N=1), phalanx (N=1), ribs (N=8) and indeterminate fragments of long bones (N=2). Only a single cut mark is visible at goat/sheep rib created during filleting. Among
EARLY NEOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGE (LAYER 2) Neolithic layer 2 is dominated by presence of the goat/sheep bones and teeth, which are four as frequent than rest of animal remains, including birds bones. Among medium size ruminants, we could also mention single bones of domesticated pig and cattle. At this layer a single fragment of a sea shell Arca noae and single tune vertebra (Fig. 6-4). Both remains are clearly connected with human activity. Among not numerous bird bones the most frequent are remains of pigeons which state comprise more than half of the bird bones assemblage. They were probably deposited as a results of non-anthropogenic factors. In this layer are very numerous are remains of goats or sheep (NISP = 236). They belongs to a minimum of 4 individuals and represents all parts of the skeleton (Table 6-3). Numerous are skull fragments, isolated teeth, vertebra and long
Fig. 6-4. Tune vertebra (Tuna tuna).
86
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD
Skeleton element
NISP
NISP
NISP
NISP
MNE
MNE
MNE
MNE
dex
sin
indet
Total
dex
sin
indet.
Total
12
12
1
1
Cranial bone Maxilla
4
4
Upper isolated teeth
6
4
1
11
Cranium total
6
8
13
27
Mandibular bone
1
4
3
8
Lower isolated teeth
7
4
2
13
Mandibule total
8
8
5
21
Isolated teeth indet.
17
17
Sternebrae
1
Atlas
2 2 1
4
1
4
2 1
3 5
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Cervicals II-VII
1
1
1
1
Thoracic
11
11
5
5
Lumbar
11
11
6
6
Sacrum
2
2
2
2
Caudal
3
3
3
3
19
19
1
2
Axis
Vertebrae indet.
1
1
Vertebrae total
30
30
1
2
Scapula Humerus
1 1
Radius Ulna
3
1
2
5
5
1
4
11
Carpals
1
Metacarpal
4 1
6
2
1
3
2
1
9
2
2
2
1
1
Innominate
3
Femur
2
4
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
5
1
1
1
4
4
4
1
5
2
2
Patella Tibia
5
3
2
4
Os malleolare Fibula Calcaneus
2
Astragalus
1
Tarsals Metatarsal
2
2
1
1
2 1 2
1
2 1
Reduced metapodium Metapodial
1
1
1
1
Phalanx I
8
8
5
5
Phalanx II
1
1
1
1
(cont.)
87
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
Phalanx III
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
Long bone fragments
18
18
Ribs
60
60
172
236
41
71
Reduced phalanx I Reduced phalanx II Reduced phalanx III Phalanx total Sesamoids
Total NISP/MNE
32
32
14
16
Table 6-3. Skeletal element representation of goat/sheep (Capra hircus /Ovis arries), expressed as NISP, and MNE at Early Neolithic layer 2 of Sarakenos Cave.
Fig. 6-5. Burned distal part of goat/sheep (Capra hircus /Ovis arries) humerus.
Fig. 6-6. Awl made from metapodial bone of goat/ sheep (Capra hircus /Ovis arries).
animal remains a single bone awl made from metacarpal or metatarsal bone of goat/sheep was also discovered (Fig. 6-6). It has polished tip created in the middle of the shaft, whereas distal articular surface has no traces of modification.
Gnawing marks are visible only on three bones of goat/sheep: pelvis, phalanx and rib. Unfortunately we could not state if it was created by a wild animal or (most probably) a dog, who accompanied the human group.
6.4. SEASONALITY Thin sections of dental cementum were studied on a subset of four sheep/goat teeth from the Early Neolithic and Neolithic layers to
determine the season of death. The cementum was in general thin and poorly preserved, showing signs of diagenesis that obscured the 88
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD
annual growth bands in some places. Season of death was nevertheless determined in all four individuals showing a repeated pattern of late spring or summer kills (Table 6-4). All the studied teeth came from young animals of
a similar age, showing a single fully-formed annual growth band and one partially complete band, in agreement with age observations made on the basis of tooth eruption patterns (see section 5).
Chronology
Element
Square
Depth
No of thin sections studied
No. of bands
Season of death
Sar 1
Early Neolithic (layer 2)
M3 dex
9
320-330
2
2
Spring / early summer
Sar 3
Early Neolithic (layer 2)
M3 dex
-1
350-360
2
2
Summer
Sar 4
Early Neolithic (layer 2)
M3 sin (still in mandible)
2
360-370
2
2
Summer
Sar 2
Initial Neolithic (layer 3)
M3 sin
3
400-410
3
2
Spring / early summer
Sample
Table 6-4. Season of death of four Ovis/Capra teeth from the Neolithic levels of Sarakenos Cave.
6.5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The bone assemblages from Sarakenos Cave provides important data on subsistence strategies during the Late Palaeolithic and Neolithic occupation of the site. Unfortunately the Mesolithic assemblage is not numerous, that is why it was not possible to show changes of human behavior during crucial environmental changes which occurred at the Pleistocene (Palaeolithic) and Holocene (Mesolithic) boundary. Interestingly in the Pleistocene layer we observed large game hunting (European wild ass and aurochs), as well as small game hunting (mainly birds) characteristic for the other sites of the Mediterranean region (Munro 2004; Stiner et al. 2000; Starkovich 2014) – except lagomorphs which were victims of predatory birds. The bird species composition and their size may lead to the conclusion that at least part of the bone assemblage of Palaeolithic layers was collected by man who may hunted selected bird species. This hypothesis is most strongly supported by numerous remains of rock ptarmigan Alectoris graeca discovered in a Pleistocene assemblage, which are almost absent in the younger layers of this cave, despite the presence of this species in
the area of current Greece until modern times. This points clearly to deliberate hunting of this species which took place during the Palaeolithic, and the conclusion that during the Palaeolithic human groups were interested in bird hunting, whereas in the younger assemblages interest in birds had dropped considerably and if such hunting took place, was concerned on small species occurring in the immediate vicinity of the cave. The presence of the relatively numerous remains of big game hunting prey in layers dated to the Pleistocene decline is similar to findings from Franchthi Cave, although it must be noted that in the latter cave in this period red deer gradually came to be the dominant prey (Jacobsen 1981). Because at the site among large mammal bones many teeth and distal parts of limbs occurred, we may expect that whole animal carcasses were transported to the site (Orians, Pearson 1979). On this basis, we can assume that those hunting lived in the immediate vicinity of the cave, which is even more likely because of difficult access to the cave entrance. The discovery in Mesolithic layer 4 of numerous remains of middle size birds (mainly 89
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
pigeons and starlings), but only a small number of stone products (see Chapter 8 in this volume) leads us to conclude that the vast majority of animal remains discovered within the layer has been accumulated as a result of natural processes - mainly the activity of birds of prey and natural mortality of species nesting on or near the cave. From the Greek Early Neolithic sites sheep, goats, pigs, cattle and dogs are present, with sheep being the most abundant in number of remains (Perlès 2001). When the distinction was possible, sheep were usually more frequent than goats. The same situation is observed at Sarakenos Cave. It is similar to the case of Franchti Cave where sheep and goats, appear suddenly and immediately dominate the faunal assemblage (Jacobsen 1981; Munro and Stiner 2015). A study of the list of fauna and the distribution of the anatomical elements of the goat/sheep skeleton suggests that the site Sarakenos Cave functioned as a kill site with in situ processing of the carcasses. The age structure of the capreones individuals discovered in both
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