The Sarakenos Cave at Akraephnion, Boeotia, Greece Vol. II The Early Neolithic, the Mesolithic and the Final Palaeolithic (Excavations in Trench A)
EDITED BY
MAŁGORZATA KACZANOWSKA JANUSZ K. KOZŁOWSKI ADAMANTIOS SAMPSON
THE POLISH ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Kraków 2016
The laboratory and field research was supported by Polish National Science Center (NCN) grant no 2011/03/B/HS3/01446
On the cover: 1. View of the cave, 2. Trench A – Neolithic and Mesolithic layers, 3. Hearth in layer 3, 4. Bone awl from layer 2.
© Copyright by Polska Akademia Umiejętności, Kraków 2016 ISBN 978-83-7676-236-4 Distributed by Polska Akademia Umiejętności ul. Sławkowska 17, 31-016 Kraków e-mail:
[email protected] www.pau.krakow.pl
DTP: Elżbieta Fidler-Źrałka
CONTENTS CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K.Kozłowski, Adamantios Sampson
CHAPTER 2
STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE
13
2.2 STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE IN TRENCH A: COMPLEX II, LAYERS 2-12 - FROM THE EARLY NEOLITHIC TO THE PALAEOLITHIC Tomasz Goslar, Tomasz Kalicki, Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
18
CHAPTER
13
2.1 THE EXCAVATION AND THE STRATIGRAPHY FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE TO THE MIDDLE NEOLITHIC (COMPLEX I) IN TRENCHES A AND C Adamantios Sampson
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4
9
UPPER SERIES MIDDLE SERIES LOWER SERIES BAYESIAN CHRONOLOGICAL MODEL
30
3
MICROMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF THE SEDIMENTS Anna Budek 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8
18 25 29
METHODS OF INVESTIGATIONS GENERAL FEATURES THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 2 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 3 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 3/4 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 4 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 5 THIN SECTIONS FROM LAYER 6
35 35 35 42 43 45 46 46
46
CHAPTER 4
CHARCOAL REMAINS Magdalena Moskal del Hoyo, Maria Ntinou 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHOD RESULTS DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
49 49 50 55
59
CHAPTER 5
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIROMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE Jarosław Wilczyński, Teresa Tomek, Adam Nadachowski, Barbara Miękina, Barbara Rzebik-Kowalska, Andrea Pereswiet-Soltan, Ewa Stworzewicz, Zbigniew Szyndlar, Adrian Marciszak, Lembi Lõugas 63 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
INTRODUCTION RESULTS DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS
63 64 78 80
CHAPTER 6
ARCHAEOZOOLOGICAL RECORD Jarosław Wilczyński, Teresa Tomek, Alex Pryor
81
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
81 81 82 88 89
INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD RESULTS SEASONALITY DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 7
HUMAN REMAINS
91
7.1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF MESOLITHIC AND FINAL PALAEOLITHIC HUMAN REMAINS Wiesław Lorkiewicz, Elżbieta Żądzińska 91 7.2 FINAL PALAEOLITHIC HUMAN TOOTH FROM LAYER 7 Nickos A. Poulianos
97
CHAPTER 8
ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS Malgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
LAYER 2 – EARLY NEOLITHIC LAYER 3 – INITIAL NEOLITHIC CONTACT ZONES BETWEEN LAYERS 2, 3, 4 LAYER 4 – MESOLITHIC LAYERS 5-10 – FINAL PALAEOLITHIC LAYER 11 – MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC (?)
CHAPTER 9
DISCUSSION
99 99 102 104 105 106 108
125
9.1 HUMAN OCCUPATIONS AND ACTIVITIES FROM THE MIDDLE HELLADIC TO THE MIDDLE NEOLITHIC Adamantios Sampson
125
9.2 TAXONOMIC POSITION AND FUNCTION OF THE CAVE IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
127
9.3 TAXONOMY, CHRONOLOGY AND FUNCTION OF THE CAVE DURING THE SEDIMENTATION OF LAYER 3 Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
130
9.4 MESOLITHIC LAYER 4: CHRONOLOGY, TAXONOMY AND FUNCTION Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
131
9.5 FINAL PALAEOLITHIC OCCUPATIONS Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Kozłowski
132
CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSIONS Małgorzata Kaczanowska, Tomasz Kalicki, Janusz K. Kozłowski, Magdalena Moskal del Hoyo, Jarosław Wilczyński
133
REFERENCES
137
APPENDIX THE MOLLUSCAN MATERIAL FROM COMPLEX I LAYERS (MIDDLE NEOLITHIC TO BRONZE AGE) Lilian Karali
151
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
161
CHAPTER
5
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE Jarosław Wilczyński, Teresa Tomek, Adam Nadachowski, Barbara Miękina, Barbara Rzebik-Kowalska, Andrea Pereswiet-Soltan, Ewa Stworzewicz, Zbigniew Szyndlar, Adrian Marciszak, Lembi Lõugas
5.1. INTRODUCTION This chapter is a taxonomic study of the animal remains discovered in trench A in Sarakenos Cave. Excavation of this cave started in the early 1970’s, but the materials used in this study come only from recent fieldwork carried out in 2004-13. Therefore, our studies here do not cover materials from the Eneolithic and Middle Helladic periods, and present results only for the materials obtained from the latest research carried out in trench A, which includes the period from Pleistocene to Neolithic (Sampson et al. 2009; see Chapter 2.2, this volume). During our studies whole bone specimens were separated from four main faunal assemblages: Early Neolithic (layer 2), Initial Neolithic (layer 3), Mesolithic (layer 4), and Pleistocene (layers 5-12). The separate analyses allows us to reconstruct paleoenvironmental changes in the area of Sarakenos Cave and generally on the Boeotia region of central Greece. During the excavations numerous and varied paleontological materials were uncovered. The hard tissue remains of different taxa of molluscs, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals were recovered in all layers, collected during the field work (Table 5-1). Unfortunately sediment samples were not taken for wet sieving, but the fine-scale excavation procedures did succeed in obtaining numerous remains of small mammals including rodents, bats, and insectivores. Because of its location, Sarakenos Cave has a region- and site-specific faunal record.
A decisive role was played by the difficult access to the cave entrance located on the rocky wall. For this reason, the faunal record of this cave does not include large carnivores bones only three mandibles of a common weasel were identified - and bones of carnivore kills are also missing; we therefore conclude that the large herbivore remains in Sarakenos Cave were accumulated by humans who inhabited the cave periodically. This is supported by a cut mark and the lack of carnivore gnawing marks. Animal remains were identified with the help of an osteological collection at the Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences in Cracow, and by use of available identification keys (e.g. Gromova 1950; Bacher 1967; Erbersdobler 1968; Fick 1974, Kraft 1972; Pales, Garcia 1981a, 1981b; Bocheński, Tomek 2009; Tomek, Bocheński 2009). The taxonomic nomenclature of avian remains was adopted after Dickinson and Remsen, Jr (2013) and Dickinson and Christidis (2014); commonly used genus names are presented in parentheses. Two quantified calculations were made of the remains: NISP (Number of Identified Specimens) and MNI (Minimum Number of Individual Animals) (Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984; Lyman 1994). Not identified to species, or classed as “indeterminate,” are bone fragments difficult to identify, such as those with no definable morphological features, or undeveloped bones of juveniles.
63
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
Pleistocene
Classes Bivalves (Bivalvia)
Holocene
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Initial Neolithic
Early Neolithic
-
-
+
+
Fishes (Pisces)
-
-
+
+
Amphibians (Amphibia)
+
-
-
-
Reptiles (Reptilia)
+
+
+
-
Birds (Aves)
+
+
+
+
Insectivores (Insectivora)
-
+
+
+
Bats (Chiroptera)
+
+
+
+
Carnivores (Carnivora)
+
+
-
-
Perrisodactyls (Perrisodactyla)
+
-
-
-
Artiodactyls (Artiodactyla)
+
+
+
+
Rodents (Rodentia)
+
+
+
+
Lagomorphs (Lagomorpha)
+
+
+
-
Table 5-1. Presence of the different class of animals in layers from Sarakenos cave (+ means presence of a particular class in this layer).
5.2. RESULTS The state of preservation of the osteological material is good. Only a small percentage of the bones is covered by calcium carbonate, and therefore it was possible to conduct a thorough taxonomic analysis. The most abundant materials were obtained from the Pleistocene and Mesolithic layers (Table 5-1). Younger layers (2 and 3) contain far smaller faunal assemblages, among which the remains of domesticated animals predominate, mostly goats or sheep. The most numerous animal remains belong to birds, which dominate both in terms of the amount of bones and the number of species. They are especially numerous in the Pleistocene assemblage, containing 68 species, and the Mesolithic layer where species composition is less rich (28 species). The second most numerous group of animals is the rodents, which, like birds, were found in all separate stratigraphic units, and are most common within the Pleistocene and Mesolithic layers. Remains of ungulates are the most numerous in both Neolithic assemblages (layers 2 and 3), as well
as in a Pleistocene sediment, where European wild ass and aurochs remains were identified. Other groups of animals such as molluscs, fish, amphibians, or reptiles were present only as a dozen or even single remains. MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) Five pieces of bivalve shells were found in the assemblages. Only three fragments could be identified to species (Table 5-2). Among the identifiable fragments are two pieces of marine mussel Arca noae, discovered in layer 3 (Initial Neolithic), and a single piece of shell of this species discovered in Layer 2 (Early Neolithic). This marine species is sedentary, and attaches to the hard (rocky) bottom, both in shallower and deeper waters. The size of the shells of the living animals reaches up to 10 cm. This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern part of the central Atlantic. 64
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE
Chronology Taxa Lp
Initial
Early
Total
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Neolithic
Neolithic
NISP
NISP
NISP
NISP
NISP
1
Arca noae
-
-
2
1
3
2
Bivalvia indet.
-
-
2
-
2
Total
-
-
4
1
5
Table 5-2. List of the Bivalves (Bivalvia) taxa and number of identified specimens (NISP).
Also in layer 3 (Early Neolithic) two fragments of shells (Bivalvia indet.) lacking taxonomically useful features were discovered. We can only state they belong to a group of molluscs with not very thick shells, covered with very fine sculpture in the form of thick and thin concentric lines.
AMPHIBIANS (AMPHIBIA) Four bony elements, two ilia and two humeri, are referred to the eastern spadefoot (Pelobates syriacus), a representative of the anuran family Pelobatidae (Table 5-4). Of the bones at hand, the ilia are especially significant for identification purposes; they display clearly diagnostic features of the genus Pelobates, including, among others, the absence of the crista dorsalis and the absence of the tuber superius. This toad is distributed in south-eastern Europe (including mainland Greece) and western Asia, where it inhabits arid, poorly wooded, and semi-desert, areas. The species prefers loose and well-aerated sandy soil where it can dig burrows with the use of its spade-like feet. Although the toad is well-adapted to xeric conditions, it needs substantial water points for reproduction, due to the relatively large size of its tadpoles and relatively long metamorphosis period. The oldest fossil remains attributed to the eastern spadefoot come from the late Pliocene of Poland (Młynarski 1977), but their referal to
FISHES (PISCES) Within trench A of the Sarakenos Cave four vertebrae of fish were discovered. Unfortunately only a single one, discovered in Neolithic layer 2, could be identified to species (Table 5-3). It belongs to tuna (Thunnus thunnus), most probably Atlantic bluefin, the most common species in the Mediterranian and east Atlantic. The other three vertebrae belong to a small freshwater fish of the Cyprinidae family, and were discovered in Neolithic and Early Neolithic layers. Since they belong to small individuals, their presence may be associated with a noncultural accumulation left by birds of prey.
Chronology Taxa
Lp
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Initial Neolithic
Early Neolithic
NISP
NISP
NISP
NISP
Total NISP
1
Thunnus thunnus
-
-
-
1
1
2
Cyprinidae
-
-
2
1
3
Total
-
-
2
2
4
Table 5-3. Fishes (Pisces) - taxa and number of identified specimens (NISP).
65
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
Chronology Species
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Total
Initial Neolithic
Neolithic
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
Pelobates syriacus
4
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
Anura indet.
7
?
–
–
–
–
–
–
7
?Chalcides
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Lacerta viridis
–
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
1
Colubridae indet.
–
–
1
1
1
1
–
–
2
Total
12
>3
2
2
1
1
–
–
15
Table 5-4. Amphibians (Amphibia) and Reptiles (Reptilia) – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI).
Pelobates syriacus cannot be fully demonstrated. Geologically younger fossil and subfossil sites (of Pleistocene/Holocene age) of this species are located within its present range in eastern Europe and western Asia (mapped on Fig. 1 in Iosif et al. 2014). The remaining amphibian remains, namely seven partly fragmentary radio-ulnae, are little informative for taxonomic purposes. They may have belonged to a number of frogs and/or toads, including Pelobates.
Ophidian remains are limited to two bony fragments: (1) an anterior trunk vertebra, and (2) a posteriormost portion of a maxilla, bearing the ectopterygoid process and two teeth. Both elements are clearly referable to the family Colubridae (sensu lato), but their state of preservation makes more precise identification impossible. Today, mainland Greece is inhabited by 16 species of colubrid snakes (s.l.), members of 11 genera (http://www.herpetofauna.gr/), that are dwellers of various environments, displaying different life styles.
REPTILES (REPTILIA)
BIRDS (AVES)
One reptilian dentary fragment is attributed to the skink genus Chalcides (family Scincidae), but this identification is only tentative (Table 5-4). Another dentary, relatively large and almost complete, is clearly identifiable as belonging to the green lizard (Lacerta virdis); the identification is based mainly on the shape and number of teeth (25) and the Meckelian groove extending throughout the bone and broadening posteriorly. Today, this lizard is widely distributed in Europe, inhabiting Greece and almost the entire southern half of the continent except for Iberia. It is a thermophilous species, typically occurring in bushy areaswith strong sun exposure. It has been reported from a number of fossil localities, ranging in age from the Miocene to Holocene; the oldest record comes from the Czech early Miocene (Čerňanský 2010).
The entire assemblage contains 2928 bird remains (Table 5-5) from all the elements of the skeleton (whole bones or fragments). Hard-toidentify fragments of the skeleton (342 bones) were placed in the category of "Aves indet". All analyses presented below relate to the identifiable remains (2586), omitting the "Aves indet". The most numerous material, both in terms of the number of bones (NISP) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI), was discovered in the Pleistocene assemblage (NISP = 1916, i.e., 74% of quantifiable remains) and Mesolithic layer (NISP = 505, i.e., 19,5%). These two categories include 93.5% of the bones. The amount of bird bones in the younger layers gradually declined (Table 5-5). From the layer 3 (Initial Neolithic come only 51 bones and 66
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE
from the layer 2 (Early Neolithic) 55; this total 106 bones is about 4% of the whole assemblage. For the remaining bone fragments (N=59, or 2.3% of the remains) we could not assign the layer. In each assemblage the decrease in the number of bones is accompanied by reduced numbers of individuals. The analyzed bones belong to not less than 87 taxa, including 79 species (Table 5-5). The remaining eight taxa are determined only to genus, family, and even to an order. In terms of species, the most varied material comes from the Pleistocene assemblage - 76 taxa including 68 species and eight identified only to a higher taxon. In the Mesolithic layer the species composition is slightly poorer, and includes 31 taxa (28 identified to species; the other three to a higher taxon). Similarly in the Early Neolithic layer 3 we identified 10 taxa, including one assigned to a higher taxon, and in the Neolithic layer 2 a total of 12 taxa were identified altogether, with one assigned to a higher taxon. Almost 50 young bird bones were found that had not fully ossified. They represent nesting periods for the birds. Some were species that can live in caves or the immediate vicinity, such as pigeons, owls, kestrels, and crows (Cramp and Perrins 1994). Consequently, they might have died of natural causes and entered the fossil assemblage fortuitously, although some may have been killed by people. Other species represent taxa that live near water or wetlands (ducks, grebe, coot, and and indeterminate Charadriiformes and Gruiformes), and also in open areas ( partridges, quails). The remains of bird taxa not locally inhabiting the site setting were probably deposited by avian predators which accumulate prey bones. We note that our attempts to specify the habitats occupied by different bird species were necessarily somewhat arbitrary (Table 5-5), because many species have different nesting and feeding requirements. This especially pertains to birds nesting in trees or on rocks, and foraging in open areas. Birds which require the presence of even a small amount of trees (mainly to nest in), even if they feed mostly in open-areas, were considered ‘forest’ specimens. We classified species as ‘open’ area types if those taxa currently live among fields and meadows or in areas that
are bushy or covered with low, stunted trees – that is, they are species not inhabiting the forest and not requiring the presence of taller trees. We classified as ‘aquatic’ species those birds that require reservoirs, waterways, wetlands, marshes, and other kinds of wet areas. Most taxa in the assemblage were ’aquatic’ (n=31), slightly fewer were ‘forest’ types (n=28). The leasts numerous taxa were ‘open’ types (n=20). This summary pertains to the entire assemblage through all time periods found in Sarakenos Cave trench A, but the proportions of species living in the separate environments changed over time (see Discussion below). Due to the specific location of the site (a cave in a rocky slope), birds nesting in the rocks require special attention. A few taxa (Columba livia pigeon, chough Pyrrhocorax sp, jackdaw Corvus monedula, kestrel Falco tinnunculus, and swallows Hirundinidae) belong to abun-dantly represented taxonomic groups in terms of MNI and NISP. They could have nested in the cave or its immediate vicinity, since some species are known to inhabit caves, niches, and crevices. Among the remains are bones belonging to juveniles; even very young individuals were present. This is one reason we conclude that the relatively large number of these birds is probably a result of a natural deposition of the bones from species nesting in the cave site. Unfledged juveniles and adults caring for offspring, and thus closely remaining at the nests, were easy prey for predators. All the bird species (except swallows) are medium-sized and would have been worthwhile prey. The less numerous rocknesting birds probably got into the sediments as a result of nesting directly in the cave (barn owl Tyto alba, little owl Athene noctua, tawny owl Strix aluco, eagle owl Bubo sp.), while others may have been brought by a predator (shore lark Eremophila alpestris, roller Coracias garrulus). Three (pigeon Columba cf. livia, rock partridge Alectoris graeca, starling Sturnus vulgaris) of the 87 taxa make up 61,6% of the total NISP and 39,1% of the total MNI. Pigeons were represented in all the analyzed assemblages, while rock partridge accumulated mainly in the Palaeolithic layers (99% of that layer’s NISP and 94% of its MNI), and starlings were mainly in the Mesolithic layer (90% NISP, 67
Lp
Taxa
Environment
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
Chronology Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
NISP MNI NISP MNI
Early Neolithic NISP
MNI
Neolithic
Total
Indet.
NISP MNI NISP MNI NISP MNI
1
Anser sp./Branta sp.
A
2
1
2
1
2
Melanitta fusca
A
1
1
1
1
3
Tadorna ferruginea
A
1
1
1
1
4
Aythya cf. ferina
A
1
1
5
Aythya cf. nyroca
A
2
1
3
2
6
Aythya fuligula
A
10
2
10
2
7
Spatula (Anas) querquedula
A
18
4
18
4
8
Mareca (Anas) strepera
A
5
1
5
1
9
Anas platyrhynchos
A
11
2
11
2
A
1
1
1
1
A
6
0
1
7
1
3
9
10 Anas crecca Spatula (Anas) querquedula/A.crecca Anatidae middle size 11 Coturnix coturnix
1
A
25
O
10
1
1
27
2
12 Alectoris graeca
O
691
50
13 Perdix perdix
O
57
6
O
66
14 Tachybaptus ruficollis
A
6
2
15 Podiceps cristatus
2
Galliformes middle size
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
A
16
Podiceps cristatus/ Podiceps grisegena
A
5
16 Podiceps nigricollis
A
1
1
17 Columba cf. livia
O
482
35
18 Columba oenas
F
1
1
19 Columba palumbus
F
3
20 Streptopelia turtur
F
4
21 Streptopelia decaocto
F
2
1
3
1
20
6
1
699
53
57
6
1
68
1 1
8
3
16
2
5 1
1
700
54
1
1
1
3
1
1
4
1
2
2
150
2
11
12
2
32
6
24
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
A
53
4
54
5
Gruiformes middle size
A
2
27 Ixobrychus minutus
A
1
1
2
2
28 Ardea cinerea
A
1
1
1
1
29 Pluvialis squatarola
A
1
1
1
1
22 Rallus aquaticus
A
23 Crex crex
O
24 Porzana porzana
A
4
25 Zapornia (Porzana) parva
A
26 Fulica atra
1
1
1
1
4
2 1
68
1
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE
30 Charadrius hiaticula
A
2
1
2
1
Charadrius dubius/ Charadrius hiaticula
A
1
1
1
1
31 Vanellus vanellus
O
1
1
1
1
32 cf. Numenius phaeopus/ Numenius tenuirostris
A
1
1
1
1
33 Limosa limosa
A
3
1
3
1
34 Calidris temminckii
A
3
1
3
1
35 Calidris (Philomachus) pugnax
A
1
1
1
1
36 Scolopax rusticola
F
1
1
37 Actitis (Tringa) hypoleucos
A
1
1
1
1
38 Tringa ochropus
A
1
1
1
1
39 Tringa cf. totanus
A
1
1
1
1
40 Chroicocephalus (Larus) ridibunbdus
A
2
1
2
1
41 Hydrocoloeus (Larus) minutus
A
1
1
1
1
42 Larus canus
A
1
1
1
1
43 Sterninae indet.
A
3
1
3
1
A
11
F
2
Charadriiformes indet 44 Aquila sp.
1
1
11 2
2
2
1
1
45 Circus aeruginosus
A
46 Accipiter nisus
F
1
1
1
1
47 Accipiter gentilis
F
1
1
1
1
48 Buteo rufinus
O
2
1
2
1
Buteo sp.
F
1
1
1
49 Tyto alba
F
50 Athene noctua
F
19
3
51 Asio flammeus
A
7
1
Asio sp.
1
3
1
1 1
1
4
1
20
4
7
1
2
2
52 Strix aluco
F
1
1
1
1
53 Bubo sp.
F
4
1
4
1
Strigiformes middle size
1
2
1
13
3
4
23
4
4
12
4
1
1
1
1
F
3
2
3
2
F
4
1
4
1
54 Coracias garrulus
F
12
2
55 Falco tinnunculus
F
23
56 Falco vespertinus
F
12
57 Falco cf. eleonorae
O
58 Falco subbuteo 59 Falco peregrinus Falco sp.
1
1
3
3
60 Lanius excubitor
F
61 Lanius sp.
F
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
2
(cont.)
69
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
62 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax
O
31
6
10
2
2
1
Pyrrhocorax sp.
O
73
5
63 Garrulus glandarius
F
1
1
64 Pica pica
O
3
1
1
1
65 Corvus monedula
F
16
3
28
4
1 1
1
4
1
3
1
1
42
9
73
5
2
6
3
4
2
5
56
9 1 2
66 Corvus frugilegus
F
6
1
6
67 Corvus corone
F
5
2
5
Corvus corone/ Corvus frugilegus
4
Corvidae indet.
46
4
44
5
1
1
4
68 Petronia petronia
O
8
2
69 Montifringilla nivalis
O
11
3
70 Fringilla coelebs
F
71 Coccothraustes coccothraustes
F
1
1
72 Chloris (Carduelis) chloris
F
2
1
Fringillidae indet.
1
73 Emberiza calandra
O
3
74 Emberiza sp.
O
1
3
1
7
1
8
2
4
1
1
1
6
1
15
12
9
3
11
3
3
1
10
3
2
1
4
3 1
108
5
1
1
1
1
3
2
22
2
6
8
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
11
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
O
8
3
10
4
O
15
3
15
3
O
14
81 Hirundinidae indet.
O
12
82 Sitta europaea
F
83 Sitta cf. neumayer
O
84 Sturnus vulgaris
F
10
2
85 Phoenicurus ochruros
O
1
1
86 Turdus viscivorus
F
4
1
87 Turdus cf. philomelos
F
2
1
75 Parus major
F
76 Melanocorypha calandra
O
10
77 Calandrella cf. brachydactyla
O
78 Galerida cf. cristata
O
79 Eremophila alpestris 80 Alauda arvensis Alaudidae (Alauda, Eremophila, Galerida)
Passeriformes middle size
281
Total
2197
1
15
1 3
4
Aves indet.
2
18
3
1
1
12
1
1
166
14
6
2
1
5 548
2
58
1 1
3
1
10
58
66
10
2
2
1
1
195
19
1
1
12
4
2
1
342
7 18
45
13
2
3 16
1
1 1
7 72
2 1
1
1
44 215
6
3
1
2928
322
Table 5-5. Birds (Aves) – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI). The most numerous species marked on grey. Letters in Environment column: F - forest environment, O - open environment, A - aquatic environment.
70
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE
89% MNI) and later. Other well represented birds (NISP 10 or more, MNI >3) are found only in the Pleistocene assemblage. Among them are species associated with an aquatic environment (garganey Spatula querquedula, coot Fulica atra), or living in open areas, such as partridge (Perdix perdix). In contrast, the remains of birds associated with a forest environment (mistle trush Turdus viscivorus and hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes) are more frequent in the Mesolithic than the Pleistocene layers, as are those living in open areas (quail Coturnix coturnix). Most remains belong to medium- and smallsized birds (small duck, partridges, rock doves, corvids, and starlings). Birds with greater body weight (> 0.5 kg), namely geese, ducks, grebes, and coots, were found mainly in the Pleistocene assemblage. From the younger Mesolithic and Neolithic layers in the cave, birds of smaller size (weight < 0.5 kg) were accumulated.
the genus Talpa. They are: the European mole (Talpa europaea) which occupies almost the whole of Europe and western Siberia, the blind mole (Talpa caeca), which is found mostly in the western Alps, the Apennines, and the Balkan peninsula, and the Balcan mole (Talpa stankovici) living also in Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Slovenia (Niethammer 1990a, b, c, Sofianidou and Vohralík 1991, Tryfonopoulos et al. 2009). The genus has been in Europe since the Late Oligocene (Tobien 1980). The morphology of the mole teeth and mandibles shows that they belong to a large species of the genus Talpa. However their size is much greater than that of the three moles mentioned above. The size is comparable to the size of fossil Talpa episcopalis, described from the Early Pleistocene in Romania; however, this mole has never been identified in localities younger than Early Pleistocene. Some authors (e.g., Niethammetr 1990a) think that the large forms of Talpa from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene are only a subspecies of the recent T. europaea. On the other hand, Storch (1974) is of the opinion they may belong to a different species. As the material found in Sarakenos Cave is incomplete and very limited in quantity, it is identified only as Talpa sp. (large size). In general moles of the genus Talpa are indicators of an open area. So far, in Europe, the oldest (late Early Pliocene, MN15) representatives of the genus Crocidura (shrews) probably come from the locality of Vue-des-Alpes in Switzerland (cf. Crocidura sp., Engesser 2005) and also from
INSECTIVORES (EULIPOTYPHLA) The remains of insectivore species (order Eulipotyphla Waddell, Okada and Hasegawa, 1999) found in the Sarakenos Cave are fragmentary and the number of individuals is low (Table 5-6). Represented are two families (Talpidae and Soricidae), two genera (Talpa Linnaeus, 1758 and Crocidura Wagler, 1832) and three species: Talpa sp. (large size), Crocidura suaveolens and Crocidura leucodon. Today moles live only in northern Greece and they are represented by three species of
Chronology Lp
Taxa
Pleistocene NISP
MNI
Mesolithic NISP
MNI
Initial Neolithic
Early Neolithic
NISP
NISP
MNI
MNI
Total NISP
MNI
1
Crocidura leucodon
-
-
8
5
-
-
3
2
11
7
2
Crocudura suaveolens
-
-
2
1
1
1
-
-
3
2
3
Talpa sp. (large form)
-
-
2
1
-
-
-
-
2
1
Total
-
-
12
7
1
1
3
2
16
10
Table 5-6. Insectivores (Eulipotyphla) – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI).
71
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
Apolakkia in Greece (Crocidura sp. Rhodes, Asia Minor, Van de Weerd et al. 1982). Remains of a little younger (early Late Pliocene, MN16) member of this genus were also recorded in Greece at Tourkobunia 1 (Crocidura sp. Doukas 2005). Two species of Crocidura were found in Sarakenos Cave. They are: the smaller C. suaveolens and the larger C. leucodon. Today the former inhabits the temperate forest zone and steppes of the entire Palaearctic from Spain to Korea in Eurasia (according to Yudin 1989 except for Siberia between the Ob river and Lake Baikal), and also North Africa. The latter taxon has a more eastern European distribution, not including the Iberian Penninsula, British Isles, and southwestern France, and reaches Crimea and the southern region of Siberia. In Greece, according to Krapp (1990), C. leucodon reaches the Peloponnese. The presence of C. suaveolens is documented in the northern part of continental Greece and on the Greek islands (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990; Goutner and Alivizatos 2003). The subfamily Crocidurinae and the above mentioned genus Crocidura contain mainly tropical forms of the Old World. At present their distribution is basically restricted to Africa and south-eastern Asia (Wolsan and Hutterer 1998). In Africa, where they show the greatest diversity and where this subfamily probably originated, as well as in India and Ceylon, the Crocidurinae
are the only living shrews. The genus Crocidura which has successfully invaded the Palaearctic, is not found there north of about 53 degrees latitude and many of its species are synanthropic. Generally speaking, the Crocidurinae (and Crocidura species) are adapted to more arid conditions and to milder climate than other shrews, and each climatic cooling event resulted in their extinction or in a decrease in their range (Reumer 1989). BATS (CHIROPTERA) Bat remains discovered at Sarakenos Cave are not numerous (Table 5-7). Altogether 28 remains could be determined to the species level. They represent major segments of the skeleton, i.e., teeth, mandible, jaw, humerus and radius. The most numerous material was discovered in Neolithic layer 2; less numerous are the remains from the Early Neolithic and Mesolithic assemblages. Only a single bone was described in the Pleistocene assemblage: it is a fragment of the left jaw of Nyctalus noctula, a typical species of the forest (Lanza 2012). This species during hibernation tolerates temperatures below zero (Slujter et al. 1973). Currently, it lives in almost the whole of Europe, but is rare is the Iberian Peninsula, in southern Greece, and in the north of the continent (Lanza 2012). Chronology
Lp
Taxa
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Initial Neolithic
Total
Early Neolithic
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
1
Rhinolophus hipposideros
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
-
1
1
2
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
1
2
1
3
Myotis myotis
-
-
1
1
-
-
-
-
1
1
4
Myotis blythii
-
-
1
1
2
1
-
-
3
2
5
Eptesicus serotinus
-
-
4
2
3
1
11
4
18
7
6
Nyctalus noctula
1
1
-
-
-
-
1
1
2
2
Total
1
1
6
4
6
3
14
6
27
14
Table 5-7. Chiroptera (Bats) – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI).
72
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE
The most frequent bat species is Eptesicus serotinus, present in Holocene layers from Mesolithic to Neolithic. In the Mesolithic layer a single individual juvenile jaw of this species was discovered, which may indicate the existence of the small nursery colony in that time. Currently Eptesicus serotinus inhabits a variety of human-built environments, but originally it was a species inhabiting rock crevices. The species forages for prey in meadows, edges of forests, terrains with open vegetation, and water reservoirs (Harbusch 2007). Today this species occurs in almost the whole of Europe, except for the northern part of England and Scandinavia (Lanza 2012). In the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic layers, the remains of Myotis blythii were identified. This species avoids large and dense forests and semi-arid areas (Arlettaz 1995, 1996; Güttinger et al. 1998), instead preferring open areas with high grass. In the Mediterranean region this species uses caves as hiding places. Specimens are documented from southern Europe, the Carpathians, and central France (Lanza 2012). Numerous remains of this species are known from various sites of central and southern Europe (including locally in Greece), from the mid-Pleistocene to Holocene (Roger and Darlas 1999; Kotsakis 1990). Similar to Myotis blythii is another species, M. myotis, which also inhabits caves, but hunts in open areas with low grass and in deciduous or mixed forest with thin undergrowth (Arletta 1995, 1996). Currently, it is present throughout Europe up to southern England and Scandinavia (Lanza 2012). In both Neolithic assemblages (layers 2 and 3) the remains of two species of Rhinolophidae (Rhinolophus hipposideros and R. ferrumequinum) were discovered. Both species prefer a rich
mosaic terrain and habitat of deciduous forests and meadows. Their typical hiding places are caves. R. ferrumequinum remains are known from numerous sites of the Mediterranean basin, and are less numerous in Central Europe (Topál 1979; Sevilla 1988), while R. hipposideros is known mostly from continental Europe (Wołoszyn 1987, 1989; Horáček 1995) and Greece (Roger and Darlas 1999). Currently, both species are present throughout southern Europe and R. hipposideros also is known from sites further north, in Germany and southern Poland, among others (Lanza 2012). CARNIVORES (CARNIVORA) Carnivores from Sarakenos Cave were found only in the Pleistocene and Mesolithic layers (Table 5-8). All three hemimandibles of small carnivores were classified as belonged to a common weasel Mustela nivalis Linnaeus. Their size and shape are generally very similar to those of modern weasel, except for larger dimensions and minor morphological features. Among other carnivores, only ermine Mustela ermine, could be misidentified with Sarakenos specimens. Small mustelids are characterised by great variability, uniform morphology, and extremely pronounced sexual dimorphism (Heptner, Naumov 1967; King, Powell 2007; Marciszak 2012). The common weasel, together with wolf, brown bear, and leopard, is among species with the greatest size variability among carnivores. What is unusually interesting is that it does not follow Bergmann’s rule and body size decreases to the north (King and Powell 2007). In this species, the larger southern weasels can be twice as long and ten times heavier than Chronology
Lp
Taxa
Palaeolithic NISP
1
Mustela nivalis Total
MNI
Mesolithic NISP
MNI
Initial Neolithic NISP
MNI
Total
Early Neolithic NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
2
2
1
1
-
-
-
-
3
3
2
2
1
1
-
-
-
-
3
3
Table 5-8. Carnivores (Carnivora) – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI).
73
SARAKENOS CAVE AT AKRAEPHNION, BOEOTIA, GREECE, II
the smaller northern subspecies (Abramov and Baryshnikov 2000). Weasel remains from Sarakenos Cave bear no signs of burning, cutting, or crushing, which are the signs interpreted as human activity. Besides the three hemimandibles, no other cranial or postcranial elements have been found. Other species from this locality notably outnumber weasel, which is a typical situation in most archaeological localities. Because of the lack of human modifications and the limited amount of cranial material, we conclude that the finds belonged to animals which died natural deaths and are not culturally related.
species (Wright and Viner-Daniels 2015). Aurochs remains belong to a single adult individual. The most numerous elements are isolated teeth (n=9) and mandibular fragments (n=5). Among other remains are a fragment of metacarpal, a pelvis, and a first phalanx. Aurochs inhabited grassland and open woodlands as evidenced by isotope analysis of Holocene specimens, which indicate that the main food source for aurochs were acorns, leaves and buds (Noe-Nygaard et al. 2005; Vuure 2005). In the Neolithic layer is a single fragment of a scapula, which probably belongs to cattle (Bos taurus). Unfortunately it is badly damaged and potentially identifying features can not be measured. Among remains from the Cervidae family is a first phalanx of an indeterminate species from the Mesolithic layer and a fragment of an antler from the Early Neolithic layer. Numerous specimens of goat/sheep (undifferentiated) were discovered in the Initial and Early Neolithic assemblages (layer 3 and 2). They represent post-consumer remains, evidenced by a significant amount of traces left from carcass dismembering, filleting, and consumption (see Chapter 6). These remains belong to a total of eight individuals and represent all parts of the skeleton, i.e., skull, axial skeleton, and long bones. Based on the analysis of the teeth, we suggest the materials from Sarakenos Cave are dominated by goat (Payne 1985, 1987). However, as shown by recent work, the separation between remains (especially the teeth) belonging to goat and sheep, in the case of materials from the early period of domestication, is very uncertain (Zeder & Pilaar 2010). The age structure of individuals identified indicate that sheep/goat juveniles which were killed at the age of > 1.5 years old dominate. Within the Pleistocene and Mesolithic layers single remains of wild boar (Sus scrofa) were discovered. Identified were three isolated teeth and the proximal part of an ulna from the Pleistocene layers, and a proximal part of a humerus and a fragment of maxilla from the Mesolithic layer. Because this species is very opportunistic feeders their habitats are also varied but is more abundant in old mature deciduous forests, especially with oak (Genov
PERISSODACTYLS (PERISSODACTYLA) Perissodactyl remains were discovered only in the Pleistocene layer (Table 5-9). They belong to a minimum of two individuals of European wild ass (Equus hydruntinus). Those remains are characterised by the small body and tooth size and patterns of dental elaborations (Geigl and Grange 2012). Remains of this species are dominated by isolated teeth, and a single talus and metatarsal bone. Single cut marks on the remains of Equus hydruntinus indicate they are directly linked with human activity (see Chapter 6). Remains of Equus hydruntinus are known from many Palaeo-, Meso- and Neolithic sites from the Iberian Peninsula to the Volga river and the Near East region (Orlando et al. 2006). This species is mainly associated with milder climatic conditions, although it is also found in colder and dryer periods (Geigl and Grange 2012). ARTIODACTYLS (ARTIODACTYLA) Artiodactyl remains in Sarakenos Cave belong mainly to goat/sheep, pig, cattle, and aurochs (Table 5-10). They were recovered mainly in the Neolithic and Early Neolithic layers. Important exceptions are the remains of aurochs (Bos primigenius) from the Pleistocene layers. Aurochs remains belong to a single, adult individual and are characterized by a large size especialli if we remember about morphological variation of this 74
FAUNAL RECORD AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES DURING HOLOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE
Chronology Lp 1
Taxa
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Initial Neolithic
Early Neolithic
NISP
MNI
-
15
2
-
15
2
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
15
2
-
-
-
-
15
2
-
-
-
-
Equus hydruntinus Total
Total
MNI
Table 5-9. Perrisodactyls (Perissodactyla) - number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI).
Chronology Lp 1
Taxa
Palaeolithic
Mesolithic
Initial Neolithic
Early Neolithic
Total
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
NISP
MNI
18
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
18
1
Bos primigenius
2
Bos taurus
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
1
1
3
Cervidae
-
-
1
1
1
1
-
-
2
2
4
Capra hircus/ Ovis arries
-
-
-
-
114
4
236
4
350
8
5
Sus scrofa
4
1
2
1
-
-
-
-
6
2
6
Sus scrofa f. domestica Total
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
1
7
1
22
2
3
2
115
5
244
6
384
15
Table 5-10. Artiodactyls (Artiodactyla) – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI).
1981; Massei et al. 1997; Acevedo et al. 2006). Additionally, fragment of a radius, two phalanxes, and teeth of domestic pig (Sus scrofa f. domestica) from a single individual were discovered in Early Neolithic layer 2.
Romanian hamster (Mesocricetus newtoni) is at present a very rare species in Europe, its geographic range restricted to lowlands (
