Sawyer, Roy T (2015). O Negócio Português de Sanguessugas no Século XIX: O Primeiro Comércio Transatlântico de Sanguessugas Medicinais. Anuario do Centro de Estudos de Historia do Atlantico, No. 7, pp 283-322

Centro de Estudos de História do Atlântico 2015

The Portuguese Leech Trade in the 19th Century: The First Trans-Atlantic Commerce in Medicinal Leeches O Negócio Português de Sanguessugas no Século XIX: O Primeiro Comércio Transatlântico de Sanguessugas Medicinais

Roy T. Sawyer

Anuário do Centro de Estudos de História do Atlântico 2015, N.º 7 ISSN: 1647-3949 Funchal – Madeira

pp. 283 - 322

Região Autónoma da Madeira

Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7

The Portuguese Leech Trade in the 19th Century: The First Trans-Atlantic Commerce in Medicinal Leeches O Negócio Português de Sanguessugas no Século XIX: O Primeiro Comércio Transatlântico de Sanguessugas Medicinais

Roy T. Sawyer

Medical Leech Museum, Bryngelen House, 2 Bryngwili Road, Hendy, Pontarddulais, Swansea SA4 0XT, UK. Roy Sawyer, PhD, is a specialist in the biology of leeches (Hirudinea), and has published extensively on many aspects of these animals. His current interest is the history of the use of leeches in medicine, with particular focus on the leech trade of the 19th century. Toward this end he established the private Medical Leech Museum near Swansea, Wales. Email: [email protected].

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ABSTRACT The use of medicinal leeches to bleed patients was a major part of medical practice throughout much of the 19th century. By the beginning of that century demand for leeches in England, by then very expensive, resulted in exhaustion of its native sources, but importation from France was precluded by the ongoing Napoleonic Wars. Possibly as early as 1812 Portugal supplied its ally England with leeches collected primarily from marshes in the environs of Porto. As a maritime nation Portugal soon extended this trade to the United States and Brazil. The unique brand of “Portuguese” or “Lisbon” leeches irrefutably dominated the very lucrative trans-Atlantic leech trade throughout the 1820s. During this decade Portugal had virtually no maritime competition. Brazil soon became the major market for leeches shipped across the Atlantic. By the early 1830s, however, the limited sources found in coastal Portugal had been exhausted. Thereafter, a new source was found further south in Morocco, from where large numbers of leeches were trans-shipped via Lisbon (sometimes still carrying the brand “Lisbon” leeches). By the 1850s the advent of steamships expanded the import of millions of leeches trans-shipped from still other sources via Hamburg, Bordeaux and Southampton. This trade continued strongly to the 1880s, and even carried into the early 20th century. This immense trans-Atlantic trade was driven by a virtually insatiable demand for leeches within Brazil. The paper discusses how this demand was fuelled by barbers and leech dealers in Rio where leeches played a more prominent role in everyday life compared with Lisbon. Recently arrived slaves were commonly trained in applying leeches and other skills of the barber. No evidence was found that leeches were exported to Brazil from Portuguese colonies in sub-Saharan Africa. Keywords: Hirudo medicinalis; Leeches; Leech Trade; Trans-Atlantic; Portugal; Brazil; Madeira; Azores; Barber; Slavery.

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RESUMO O uso de sanguessugas medicinais para sangrar pacientes foi uma parcela importante da prática médica ao longo de grande parte do século XIX. No início desse século, a demanda por sanguessugas na Inglaterra, por essa época muito caras, resultou no esgotamento das suas fontes internas, mas a importação de França foi impedida pelas Guerras Napoleónicas. Possivelmente tão cedo quanto 1812 Portugal forneceu a sua aliada Inglaterra de sanguessugas recolhidas principalmente em pântanos nos arredores do Porto. Como uma nação marítima, Portugal logo estendeu este comércio aos Estados Unidos e ao Brasil. A marca única de sanguessugas “Portuguesas” ou de “Lisboa” irrefutavelmente dominou o muito lucrativo comércio transatlântico de sanguessugas ao longo dos anos 1820. Durante esta década Portugal não teve praticamente concorrência marítima. O Brasil rapidamente se tornou o principal mercado para sanguessugas exportadas através do Atlântico. Pelo início dos anos 1830, no entanto, tinha esgotado as limitadas fontes das zonas costeiras de Portugal. A partir daí, uma nova fonte foi encontrada mais a sul, em Marrocos, de onde grandes números de sanguessugas foram transbordados via Lisboa (às vezes ainda carregando a marca de sanguessugas de “Lisboa”). Na década de 1850, o advento dos navios a vapor expandiu a importação de milhões de sanguessugas transbordadas ainda de outras origens, via Hamburgo, Bordéus e Southampton. Esse comércio continuou fortemente até a década de 1880, e até mesmo o início do século XX. Este imenso comércio transatlântico foi impulsionado por uma procura praticamente insaciável de sanguessugas no Brasil. O artigo discute como essa demanda foi alimentada por barbeiros e comerciantes de sanguessugas no Rio, onde as sanguessugas desempenharam um papel mais proeminente na vida quotidiana, em comparação com Lisboa. Escravos recém-chegados eram comumente treinados na aplicação de sanguessugas e em outras competências de barbeiro. Não foram encontradas provas de que sanguessugas eram exportadas para o Brasil a partir de colónias portuguesas na África sub-saariana. Palavras-chave: Hirudo medicinalis; Sanguessugas; Comércio de Sanguessugas; Transatlântico; Portugal; Brasil; Madeira; Açores; Barbeiro; Escravatura.

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Introduction

M

edicinal leeches (“sanguessugas”) have been used therapeutically in Portugal since at least the 17th century. Early Portuguese pharmacopoeias commonly recommended leeching as a standard alternative to cupping and other forms of bloodletting. For example, Joam Semmedo’s Pyanthea Medicinal Noticias Galencias (1704) had no fewer than 39 citations to leeches1. Similarly, the Farmacopéia Tubalense mentioned leeches in its 1751 edition.2 In the 17th and 18th centuries leeches were used sparingly and in relatively low numbers. Then, from the 1810s Portugal, as elsewhere in Europe, experienced a popularity in leeching which persisted for most of the 19th century. During this “leech mania” these bloodsucking worms were used extensively to treat a variety of medical conditions. Virtually all of the numerous medical and pharmaceutical journals in Portugal, eg Gazeta Médica de Lisboa, were replete with remarkably diverse case studies in which leeches were applied. In 1820 alone 100,000 leeches were reportedly consumed in Portugal.3 Such demand for leeches within Portugal fuelled the beginnings of an organised commercial trade which reached across the Atlantic. This paper is not a critique into the validity nor absurdity of the therapeutic use of leeches in the Portuguese context. Instead, this study focuses on the economic and commercial aspects of a maritime trade which grew out of an insatiable demand for leeches. Portugal was literally the pioneer of this lucrative trans-Atlantic trade, fuelled initially by demand in England, and then in the United States and especially Brazil. Portugal’s pre-eminence in this trade was attributable to a lucky confluence of biological good fortune, political alliances and maritime prowess.

Methods This paper built upon databases accumulated over the years from many sources in the Medical Leech Museum in Wales. Additional research focused specifically on the history of the leech trade in Portuguese and Brazilian contexts. This involved searching the physical and digital facilities of several key national archives and libraries credited in the Acknowledgements. The single most productive source of data used in this paper was the outstanding digitalized newspapers of the 19th century in the National Library of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro. The Portuguese language is unusual in having several words for the bloodsucking animals known as “leeches” in English, plus a bewildering variety of spellings for each. All digital searches of early documents 1 2 3

SEMMEDO, 1704, Pyanthea Medicinal Noticias Galencias, e Chymicas, p. 868. GRANDE ENCICLOPÉDIA, 195-, p. 683. GRANDE ENCICLOPÉDIA, 195-, p. 683.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 based on key words for “leeches” had to include each of the following variants for completeness. The oldest vernacular term for these bloodsucking animals in the 18th century was “bixas”, later and more usually spelled “bichas”. As bixa/bicha had several meanings the phrase “bixas (bichas) de tirar sangue” or “bixas (bichas) de sangrar” was commonly used for clarification. However, this longer phrase fell out of usage such that the term “bichas” was remarkably persistent, especially in the context of maritime commerce. Both “bixas” and “bichas” were published in the same almanac in São Paulo as late as 1888.4 The formal term for leeches based on Latin for “bloodsucker” in modern Portuguese is “sanguessugas”, a word which hardly existed in 18th and 19th century documents. For the most part the modern spelling “sanguessugas” did not stabilize its usage until the 20th century. The more common spelling throughout much of the 19th century was “sanguesugas”. In early documents the spelling was remarkably variable, from sanguexuga, sanguixuga, sanguechuga, sanguichuga, sanguisuga, sanguesuga, and finally sanguessuga. Translations of short newspaper articles or advertisements from Portuguese into English were often required in this paper to document a point. For the most part these are expressed only in English, and priority was given to vernacular meaning rather than a literal translation. In each case the original citation is included. The Portuguese language has a number of diacritical marks or accented letters which have little meaning in English. In this paper such marks are often eliminated or anglicized, such that, for example, réis is written reis, and São João is written Sao Juan. The name of the important town “Porto” is used in preference to “Oporto”, the English name for the same town. For convenience Rio de Janeiro was often shortened to Rio. The monetary unit used primarily in this paper was the Portuguese “real”, more usually expressed in the plural “réis” which was commonly abbreviated “rs”. This was a remarkably stable currency used in Portugal and its colonies in the 19th century. Throughout this period the value of leeches was often expressed in original documents as “mil-réis” or 1,000 réis, and written 1$000. For simplicity in this paper mil-réis was always written out numerically, such that 60$000 or 60$ became 60,000 reis. Occasionally, in non-Portuguese contexts leech values were given in the respective currencies of England, Spain or France. These are recorded as in the original documents and no attempt was made to convert to Portuguese reis.

The Portuguese Barber: From Quackery to Wholesale Dealer From time immemorial the most respected doctors in the Kingdom held medicinal leeches in the highest therapeutic esteem. This is evident from their persistent use on Portuguese royalty over many decades. Without going into detail, Pedro II, Maria I, Miguel I, Maria II, Prince Consort Augustus, Pedro I of Brazil and his Empress Leopoldina were all leeched at critical times of their lives.5 Leeches were squarely in the domain of royalty and other well-to-do, because they were very expensive and inaccessible on demand. At the other end of the social spectrum leeches were too expensive for the “indigent class”.6 7 These poor and uneducated were typically exposed to leeches by the often exploitative barber. In the 18th century itinerant barbers were commonplace enough in the Portuguese countryside, but all too often they practised quackery and were held in low repute (Figure 1). By the 19th century the barber was more established in reputation and in fixed location. In addition to cutting hair and shaving his regular customers, the barber’s primary source of income was from bleeding and leeching those who sought his services.8 He did sell leeches but he was able to charge significantly more by applying (“renting”) them to prospective clients, in his own shop or in their home. 4 5 6 7 8

ALMANACH DA PROVINCIA DE SÃO PAULO [...],1888, pp. 81, 244, 762, 793. London Chronicle (London), 20 June 1786; LONGO, 2008, Isabel Orleans-Bragança, p. 24; DIARIO DA ASSEMBLEA, 8 June 1823 (No. 40), p. 371; MACAULAY, 1986, Dom Pedro, pp. 149-150, 202; Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), 28 November 1828, p. 2; THE COURT JOURNAL, 11 April 1835, No. 301, p. 229; ALMEIDA, 18 April 1835, «Account of the Last Illness», pp. 89-90; Morning Chronicle (London), 20 October 1840. O Panorama (Lisboa), 3 February 1838, Vol. 2, p. 38. Revista Universal Lisbonense (Lisboa), 1843, Vol. II, p. 518. ANONYMOUS, 1831, «Recollections of Life in Lisbon», Vol. 5, p. 478.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Figure 1. “The Charlatan” (O Charlatão) 18th century Portuguese print by G. Dow depicting an itinerant barber

Source: Courtesy of Medical Leech Museum, Wales. Observations: Note on the table a bleeding (barber) bowl and a jar which may contain leeches.

The established Portuguese barber commonly advertised his leeches by prominently displaying the words

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 “BIXAS DE SANGRAR” or “BIXAS BOAS” (vernacular for “GOOD LEECHES”) on either side of which was a drawing of a jar containing a few crudely drawn worms.9 10 These pictorials were painted either on a dedicated signboard, or on either side of the door itself. This pictorial form of advertising leeches was aimed at potential customers who could not read, and apparently was unique to Portugal and its colonies. Parenthetically, another peculiarly Portuguese aspect of leeching was that not uncommonly the barber applied leeches to the soles of the feet («... to draw the disease from the head to the feet.»).11 Little has been recorded of what happened within the barber’s shop. One snippet, however, came from a visiting Englishman as early as 1809 who described his barber as «holding up a white jar, having a superscription on the outside to the following effect: ‘bixas boas’ (good leeches).»12 In rural villages the multi-talented barber applied and sold leeches along with his other duties. In towns and cities, however, some of the barbers became specialist dealers in leeches and sometimes advertised to the general public in local newspapers and other periodicals. In virtually all such advertisements the quality of these perishable worms was the foremost selling point: «The public is advised that at the address Corpo Santo No. 13, there are always bixas ou sanguisugas [ i.e.leeches] for sale, the best quality for wholesale and retail, particularly for shipment in their own mud to keep them in good condition.»13

As more dealers became involved in this lucrative trade price soon became an additional competitive factor. In the summer of 1833 two enterprising leech dealers were advertising in Lisbon, one at No. 28, Chiado Street14 and one at 34 Soccorro Street. The latter had the edge by offering leeches at what will be seen in the following sections was a very low price of 10 reis each: «At the top of Soccorro Street, shop no. 34, leeches are sold at 10 rs each, of highest quality, at any quantity which is priced accordingly.»15

The use of leeches increased exponentially during times of epidemics. Foremost was cholera, an imported disease associated with high mortality. For treatment of this feared disease leeches were widely used in Lisbon, Porto and other towns in the epidemic of 183316, and again in 1853-185517. Arriving ships which were infected or suspected with cholera and other communicable diseases were quarantined from 4 to 25 days before being allowed to land. In Lisbon in 1858 «... the cause of the quarantine was because the vessel from Gibraltar, with leeches, had communicated with a steamer from Alexandria, then declared to be infected with the plague....».18 Such was the intertwining nature of Portugal’s maritime commerce in leeches.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

A.P.D.G., 1826, Sketches of Portuguese Life [...], pp. 13-16. Belfast Telegraph (Belfast), 1 September 1854. LARDNER, 1834, «History of the Progress of the Malignant Cholera From Oporto to Lisbon», p. 320. GRATTAN, 1847, Adventures with the Connaught Rangers [...], Vol. 1, p. 7. Gazeta de Lisboa (Lisbon), 3 September 1831, p. 846. Gazeta de Lisboa (Lisbon), 10 July 1833, p. 846. Gazeta de Lisboa (Lisbon), 20 May 1833, p. 640. LARDNER, 1834, «History of the Progress of the Malignant Cholera From Oporto to Lisbon», pp. 318, 320. ALMEIDA, 2011, «The Portuguese Cholera Morbus Epidemic of 1853-56 [...]», p. 18. «Papers Relating to Quarantine Practice, Portugal, Lisbon», PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS, p. 8.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Portugal had a Rich Source of Native Leeches In modern Portugal medicinal leeches appear to be uncommon and rarely encountered. Furthermore, in a formal report by CITES on the status of medicinal leeches in European countries, Portugal was remarkable in having no data on the presence of this threatened species.19 Yet, in the 1820s Portugal was the forerunner of a trans-Atlantic trade in this lucrative commodity. A few historical records confirm that the medicinal leech once flourished here, and probably still does in isolated pockets. In 1705 an annual festival to Saint James (“Santiago”), the patron saint of Portugal, was held at a chapel in Cabeceiras de Basto, northeast of Porto. This chapel Santiago da Faya, commonly called Santiago das Bichas (“Santiago of the Leeches”), had a nearby stream which abounded in these bloodsucking worms. Pilgrims from near and far took this opportunity to heal themselves with these leeches and attributed success to Saint James.20 21 Fortunately, several specific localities have been identified as commercial sources of native leeches in the 19th century. These were primarily in the coastal and northern regions of Portugal and thus were geographically focused on Porto, rather than Lisbon. The former’s logistical advantage was reflected in the shipping records to Brazil discussed below. Perhaps the most commercially significant collecting site was the expansive estuarine marshes around Aveiro, just south of Porto.22 Another productive region was a short distance further down the coast in the Figueira estuary. This was confirmed as early as 1824 by a dealer in Rio de Janeiro who tried to gain a competitive advantage by announcing: «Be advised that these leeches are from Figueira, much better in quality than those from Porto.»23 Leeches were also collected a little east of Figueira in the nearby marshes around Coimbra (Figure 2), as evidenced by the following local advertisement: «In Figueira Square, no. 93, I have for sale a quantity of leeches, recently arrived from the Fields of Coimbra.»24

19 20 21 22 23 24

CITES, 2006, pp. 8-9. STEVENS, 1705, The Ancient and Present State of Portugal, p. 82. COSTA, 1706, Corografia Portugueza, Vol. 1, p. 151. O Panorama (Lisboa), 3 February 1838, Vol 2, p. 38. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 17 December 1824, p. 2. Gazeta de Lisboa (Lisbon), 16 March 1830, p. 258.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Figure 2. Source of Medicinal Leeches. Marshes around Coimbra circa 1839

Source: “Deutschland und die Welt”, McLeod, public domain.

Furthermore, lakes and ponds in the northern frontier region bordering Portugal and Galicia were also sources of good quality leeches. In this context Laguna de Antela near Limia was the most notable.25 26 Unfortunately, this lake was drained during the Franco period. In 1844 and 1845 small quantities of leeches (74 and 178 pounds, respectively) collected on the Portuguese side were exported across the Rio Mino into the Galician border town of Tui.27 Similarly, in 1845/1846 Portugal exported from this region a total of 19,000 leeches (valued at 130,000 reis) to the Galician port of Caminha.28 In the Lisbon area leeches were definitely recorded, but rarely in the context of commercial exploitation. In 1810 a British soldier encountered a quantity of bloodsuckers in Rio Maior, not far from Santarem: «... the only inconvenience that I felt in bathing, in the middle of December, was the quantity of leeches that used to attach themselves to my personal supporters, obliging me to cut a few capers to shake them off, after leaving the water.»29

Finally, it should be mentioned that leeches were locally abundant in certain montane streams on either side of the long shifting north-south border between Portugal and Spain, for example, Zarza la Mayor (1809)30,

25 26 27 28 29 30

FORD, 1855, A Handbook for Travellers in Spain, p. 624. FULGOSIA, (1866) 2002, Cronica de la Provincia de Orense, pp. 11, 13. MADOZ, 1849, Diccionario Geografico-Estadistico Historico de Espana [...], Vol. xv, p. 190. Alfandegas Menores Do Continente. Desenvolvimento Do Rendimento De 1845-1846 (Lisboa), Table No. 29, p. 9. KINCAID, 1830, Adventures in the Rifle Brigade [...], p. 3. HAWKER, 1810, Journal of a regimental officer [...], p. 84.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Rio Caia (1811)31, La Fregeneda and Grisuela (1844)32. These served as sources for local use and occasional small overland exports to Spain. Very little is known about the mechanics of harvesting leeches in Portugal even though this was literally the beginning point of the trans-Atlantic trade in these animals. However, it can be inferred from other countries that leeches were collected by organised teams of peasants who entered the marshes and ponds mentioned above to collect them manually. These aquatic animals were not available uniformly throughout the year in that they went into the mud in the winter, and again in mid-summer to escape excessive heat. Thus, the windows of opportunity for harvesting were in the spring and autumn. There is some commercial evidence that this seasonality was indeed the case. As discussed in detail below, from 1823 to 1832 more than 100 shipments of leeches were exported from Porto to Rio de Janeiro (Table 1). Their arrival in Rio showed two monthly peaks, one in the month of May, and again in September-October (Table 2). Given that transport by sailing vessels to Rio took conservatively a month, it can be deduced that these leeches from the general vicinity of Porto were collected in the spring (April) and especially in the autumn (September). Table 1. Summary of Numbers of Leech Shipments Exported from Porto, Portugal, into Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, during the Period 1820-1845 Year

Shipments

Year

Shipments

1820

0

1833

0

1821

0

1834

0

1822

0

1835

2

1823

1

1836

2

1824

8

1837

0

1825

14

1838

4

1826

8

1839

1

1827

8

1840

0

1828

3

1841

0

1829

19

1842

0

1830

14

1843

0

1831

12

1844

0

1832

11

1845

0

Source: data based on Diario do Rio de Janeiro. Observations: The break after 1832 corroborates other data that at this time Portugal had exhausted its native sources of leeches.

31 LEACH, 1831, Rough Sketches of the Life of an Old Soldier, p. 223. 32 MADOZ, 1850, Diccionario Geografico-Estadistico Historico de Espana [...], Vol. viii, pp. 178, 597.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Table 2. Monthly Periodicity of Leech Shipments Exported from Porto, Portugal, into Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, during the Period 1823-1832 Month

Shipments

Month

Shipments

January

8

July

9

February

4

August

8

March

6

September

14

April

3

October

14

May

14

November

9

June

4

December

7

Source: from data derived from Diario do Rio de Janeiro. Observations: These were native Portuguese sources collected in the vicinity of Porto in the spring and especially the autumn.

Exhaustion of Native Leeches in Portugal: 1832 An account of leeches exported from Portugal in the 19th century is presented in some detail in the following sections. One recurring theme was the break of such exports in 1832. This was observed in England, United States and the aforementioned trade specifically between Porto and Rio de Janeiro (Table 1). Overwhelming evidence documents that this break was due to exhaustion of native sources of leeches within Portugal: «The frequent use of leeches in medicine over the years has caused the disappearance of these useful animals from many swamps where they used to be abundant; such as in the vicinity of Aveiro.»33 This break in export from Porto also coincided with the Siege of Porto (July 1832 to Aug 1833), during which the troops of Dom Miguel I of Portugal besieged the troops of Dom Pedro I of Brazil. During this siege a senior English colonel was wounded in Porto on 29 September 1832. In a letter of 12 October he complained no leeches were available to treat him, with the consequence that on 31 October 200 leeches were shipped from Liverpool to Porto at a total cost of 14 shillings (plus 4 pence for the jar).34 35 The following January 1833 a local official donated 300 leeches to the Military Hospital at Santo Thyrso outside Porto.36 By the 1840s leeches originating in Portugal were few and noteworthy. Thus, in May 1847, a single case of leeches was shipped from Figueria to Bahia.37 Two years later another belated shipment of leeches to Bahia was specifically heralded as being Portuguese, rather than of foreign origin.38 In the 1850s Portugal did export small quantities of leeches overland to Spain. For example, in 1850, 1851 and 1852 Portugal exported a quantity of only five pounds (valued at 30 Spanish reals) of leeches each respective year.39 40 41 However, during this same period Spain shipped far more leeches overland into Portugal: in 1851, 1852 and 1853 Spain exported to Portugal 22,296, 56,508 and 8,000 leeches, respectively.42 Thus, Portugal was actually a net importer of leeches at its border with Spain in the 1850s, reflecting relative exhaustion of Portuguese native leeches. In 1859 the Royal Academy of Sciences in Lisbon proposed a rather modern solution to the scarcity of native medicinal leeches. A prize would be given to anyone who studied the localities within Portugal where 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

O Panorama (Lisboa), 3 February 1838, Vol 2, p. 38. HODGES, 1833, Narrative of the Expedition to Portugal in 1832 [...], pp. 372-373. SHAW, 1837, Personal Memoirs and Correspondence of Colonel Charles Shaw [...], Vol. II, pp. 200-201. Gazeta de Lisboa (Lisbon), 26 Feb 1833, p. 254. Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 26 May 1847, p. 4. Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 10 Mar 1849, p. 4. CUADRO GENERAL DEL COMERCIO EXTERIOR DE ESPANA [...], 1852, p. 141. CUADRO GENERAL DEL COMERCIO EXTERIOR DE ESPANA [...], 1854, pp 142, 151. RONQUILLO, 1857, Diccionario de Materia Mercantil [...], Vol. IV, p. 258. RONQUILLO, 1857, Diccionario de Materia Mercantil [...], Vol. IV, p. 258.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 the leech lives naturally to determine the best means of artificially rearing these animals. The award would be substantial, a gold medal worth 50,000 reis by weight.43 About this time an experimental leech rearing pond was made by Dr Gaspar Gomes.44 A model for Dr Gomes was the success of the celebrated leech ponds near Bordeaux by Mr. Bechade. With scarcity of native sources of leeches, they became increasingly expensive. In fact, the exorbitant price of leeches had a significant impact on the numbers used in hospitals, the largest consumer of leeches in Portugal. Ultimately the exorbitant price was a major factor in the decline of leeching. Commercial pressures dictated that various ways had to found to minimize the budget for this expensive commodity. Price undoubtedly contributed to the decline in the number of leeches used at San Jose Hospital in Lisbon from the late 1840s. In 1849 a total of 83,131 leeches were used; in 1850, 59,540; in 1851, 27,036; and in 1852, 21,853.45 In the academic year 1860-1861 the Medical School at Coimbra spent 1,036,655 reis on drugs, and an additional 106,785 reis on leeches. In other words leeches alone constituted over 10% of the expenditure on drugs for that year.46 To ensure the best price for leeches hospitals publically notified prospective dealers annually to submit competitive bids. For example, on 6 May 1833 San Jose Hospital advertised in the Gazeta de Lisboa that anyone who wished to sell leeches to come to the hospital in person.47 Bleeding by means of wet cupping was encouraged over the application of leeches themselves. In 1863 at San Jose Hospital specialist employees skilled in bloodletting carried out 5,364 wet cuppings which yielded a total of 1,072 kg of blood. This amount of blood was calculated at the time to have replaced 13,421 leeches, a considerable saving.48 In addition to the above, other approaches were made to reduce the expenditure on leeches, including improvement of their survivability in a hospital context,49 development of techniques for re-using leeches on other patients, and experimenting with various mechanical devices (artificial leeches). The latter were primarily proprietary products developed in other countries and advertised locally.

Export of Medicinal Leeches from Portugal England: 1812-1832. The first export market for Portuguese leeches was England in the 1810s. Several economic and political factors contributed to creation of this market. Firstly, native sources of leeches were so exhausted in England by the turn of the 19th century that even the moderately wealthy were unable to afford them. A prominent doctor in 1811 lamented: «... It is in vain to recommend to a poor patient the application of leeches, when from the want of management and the waste and destruction of this valuable insect, they are become so costly as to be an object of serious expence even to persons in moderate circumstances....»50

A similar sentiment was expressed in a popular periodical: «... it is clear that even the rich will be unable to procure them, at any rate, as the race will soon be extinct.»51 At this time English leeches were being sold 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51

O Instituto (Coimbra), 1859, Vol. 7, p. 286. O Archivo rural (Lisbon), 1859, Vol. 2, p. 185; also, Archivo Pittoresco (Lisbon), 1868, Vol. 11, p. 143 (footnote). BARRETO, 2005, «A Medicina Luso-Brasileira [...]», p. 28. O Instituto (Coimbra), 1861, Vol. 9, p. 87. Gazeta de Lisboa (Lisbon), 7 May 1833, p. 579. Gazeta Medica De Lisboa (Lisboa), 1864, p. 502. Gazeta Medica de Lisboa (Lisboa), 1865, p. 303. STOCK, 1811, Memoirs of the Life of Thomas Beddoes, M.D., p. 363. Monthly Magazine (London), 14 July 1811, p. 536.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 for as much as 3-5 shillings apiece, 14 shillings per 12 and even 7£ per 100. Secondly, the English were unable to import significant numbers of leeches from France during the Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815). Ironically, it was the English military presence in Portugal, against Napoleon, which revealed an exploitable source of leeches from the coastal marshes of Portugal. As early as 1800 General Banastre Tarleton was treated with Portuguese leeches at his headquarters near Lisbon for an acute case of bilious gout.52 However, it was the Peninsular War (1807-1814), in which the English fought bloody battles against invading French and Spanish forces, that escalated the use of local leeches by the English. On 10 October 1809 a recently arrived English soldier with a face swollen from fleas and bedbugs sought help from a local barber in Lisbon. The barber’s reply revealed a blatant exploitation underlying the leech trade: «... Within the last ten days, that is to say, since the arrival of the fleet of transports from Portsmouth, I have given employment to one thousand leeches in this very house. This hotel has made my fortune, and now, with the blessing of God and the Virgin Mary, I’ll add to the number, already made use of, one hundred more, on the faces of those to whom I have the honour of addressing myself.»53

Importation of leeches into England from sources abroad came soon thereafter. One of the earliest importers was Henry Potter who as early as 1812 had constructed leech ponds for such purposes at Brixton Hill, London.54 Considering that the war with France was still on-going, it is quite possible that Potter’s leeches initially came from Portugal, the only other practical source at that time. The earliest definitive record of leeches being imported specifically from Portugal was on 27 May 1814. “Lisbon Leeches” were being sold for 5 shillings, 6 pence per dozen, whereas “True English Leeches” were priced at 12 shilling per dozen.55 For most of the following year Lisbon Leeches were the most popular and cheapest on the market, being advertised regularly at 30 shillings per 100.56 By 1816 for each English leech more than one hundred foreign57 leeches were being sold.58 Surprisingly few advertisements were placed in English newspapers specifically mentioning Portuguese leeches, in contrast to those in the United States for the same period (see below). A notable exception was an ad placed in 1825 by W. H. Richford, a prominent dealer in London, who priced them at a remarkably low 3 shillings, 6 pence per 100: «To Surgeons, Druggists &c- LEECHES Richford & Co begs to inform medical gentlemen they may be supplied at all times with TRUE SPECKLED LEECHES, fresh caught and warranted perfectly healthy, on lower terms than leeches of the same quality can be bought from any other dealer in the Kingdom. Also, green or Lisbon leeches at 3s 6d per 100 from 11 to 4 o’clock daily, at 3, Bride Court, New Bridge Street, Blackfriars, London. Country orders with reference in London immediately attended to.»59

English customs records confirm that leeches were imported on ships coming from Portugal. The earliest found in this study was on 19 November 1824 into Liverpool on the ship Lancashire Witch which had just arrived from Lisbon. The ship’s manifest declared it carried five jars of leeches. Interestingly, of 94 leech Sporting Magazine (London), 1800, Vol. 15, p. 24. GRATTAN, 1847, Adventures with the Connaught Rangers [...], Vol. 1, p. 7. MORTON, 1935, «Leech Merchant», pp. 12-13. The Medical and Physical Journal (London), 27 May 1814, Vol. 31, p. 526. The Medical and Physical Journal (London), 21 April and 16 May 1815, Vol. 33, pp. 429 and 517; 21 July and 25 August 1815, Vol. 34, pp. 173 and 261. 57 Portuguese and French (with cessation of hostilities France also entered the market). 58 JOHNSON, 1816, A Treatise on the Medicinal Leech, p. 41. 59 The Times (London), 6 June 1825, p. 6. 52 53 54 55 56

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 shipments based on ships’ manifests from 1817-1858 only eight came from Portugal, and all of those were from Lisbon up to 1832. These ships disembarked at the ports of Liverpool (5), Bristol (2) and Hull (1).60 By inference, Portuguese leeches were never a major component of the total imported number of leeches into England during this period. Only one possible record of Portuguese leeches being re-exported from England to its colonies has emerged, in Trinidad: «In 1829 the Driggses advertised a variety of new French medicines such as sulphate of quinine, piperine, gentianine, acetate of morphine, sulphate of morphine, emitine, and strichnine, as well as a large supply of fine Lisbon leeches».61

In Portugal contact with the English continued long after the Peninsular War. In April 1827 a soldier at Coimbra was accidentally shot through the liver by a musket ball. He survived this trauma following the repeated application of over 400 leeches, and returned to England in July.62 After 1840 virtually all leeches coming into England via Lisbon were being trans-shipped, primarily from Morocco. Thus, in 1842 three British ships carrying leeches from Larache, Morocco, were in Lisbon harbour.63 In the same year leeches valued at 40,000 reis were exported to England from Portugal.64 In 1849 three crates of leeches went from Sintra, Lisbon, to Portsmouth.65 Considerable numbers were involved, but, in that these Moroccan leeches did not originate in Portugal, this trade lies outside the scope of this paper. United States: 1819-1832. From the 1810s leeching as a mild form of bloodletting became increasingly popular in America and, in the absence of a suitable alternative, this created a demand for the much valued Hirudo medicinalis from Europe. Initial importation was erratic and problematical due to the long journey, but by the 1820s a lucrative trade became established, especially from Portugal to New York and Philadelphia. The earliest record of Portuguese leeches being imported into the United States was into Philadelphia by John Kunitz in a newspaper account of 5 July 1819: «... he has imported the leeches of Great Britain and Portugal, and his very neat and commodious reservoir for keeping them, now contains three thousand and three hundred of those animals in high health and excellent order!»66

It should be emphasized here that those imported from Great Britain (in this case probably Liverpool) were undoubtedly trans-shipped from somewhere else, and did not originate in Great Britain which had long exhausted its native supply of medicinal leeches.67 Subsequently, American importers and dealers regularly advertised having leeches from Portugal, perhaps the earliest of which was in New York on 8 March 1821: «LEECHES. Just received and for sale at No. 16 Maiden-lane, a number of fine Portugal LEECHES.»68 60 LIVERPOOL: 19 Nov 1824 (5 jars leeches), 15 Dec 1826 (1 jar), 9 Dec 1831 (5 boxes), 20 July 1832 (2 boxes), 27 July 1832 (2 boxes); BRISTOL: 9 Aug 1832 (2 boxes), 18 Aug 1832 (2 boxes); HULL: 21 Feb 1832 (2 boxes). 61 HIGMAN, Slave Populations of he British Caribbean, 1807-1834, p. 269, citing Port of Spain Gazette, 3 Jan and 7 Nov 1829. 62 LONGMAN, 1864, «History of a case of gunshot wound of the liver [...]», p. 505. 63 MACGREGOR, 1850, Commercial Statistics [...], p. 1158. 64 THE LISBON GUIDE [...], 1853, p. 100. 65 ATKINSON, 2012, The Criminal Conversion of Mrs. Norton, p. 349. 66 The Repertory (Boston, MA), 10 July 1819, p. 4. 67 SAWYER, 2013, «History of the Leech Trade in Ireland [...]», p. 425. 68 Evening Post (New York, NY), 8 March 1821, p. 3.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Some even identified their leeches as having come from the port of Lisbon, as indicated by an advertisement from Hartford, Connecticut, which first appeared 22 July 1823, and repeated nineteen times until 2 March 1824: «Value Drugs and Medicines Just received at the sign of the ‘GOOD SAMARITAN’ [...] also, a quantity of very healthy Lisbon Leeches. [...] 6 doors West of Hartford Bank, Hartford.»69

Such advertisements announcing the sale of leeches confidently originating from Portugal occurred every year from 1821 until 1832, mainly from port cities on the east coast, specifically New York (NY), Albany (NY), Batavia (NY), Hartford (CN), Savannah (GA), and New Orleans (LA). One such shipment, from Lisbon to New York City in 1828, took 65 days, carrying consignments of leeches, salt, wool and lemons.70 In all, during this twelve year period 24 separate shipments from Portugal were recorded. One New York dealer announced that he had arranged regular shipments, so the overall total number was undoubtedly higher. As a guide to the quantities involved per shipment, two different dealers indicated that their respective shipments contained 2,000 leeches each. Roughly, then, it can be estimated conservatively that somewhere between 50,000 and 100,000 leeches were exported to America from Portugal during this period. There is evidence, however, that by the end of this period Portugal had virtually depleted its supply of native supply of leeches in that one of the last ads in 1832 emphasized that the dealer had received only a «small lot of superior Portuguese leeches».71 The background is that from the 1830s some leeches continued to be shipped to the United States under the respected brand “Portuguese Leeches”, but in fact these were trans-shipped from sources further south in Morocco, often via Spanish ports of Malaga and Cadiz. This is encapsulated in the following ad in New York: «PORTUGUESE LEECHES — The subscribers have just received (per brig Ann Maria from Malaga) a fresh supply of Portuguese Leeches. — all orders for applying them will be promptly attended to by an experienced person. LORING & PRESCOTT corner Fulton and Gold St.»72

As these leeches did not originate in Portugal, and often did not even visit Portuguese ports, this trade also lies outside the scope of this paper. In summary, most of the medicinal leeches initially imported into the United States came from Portugal. This trade lasted for only about fifteen years ending in the early 1830’s, by which time Portugal had lost its initial supremacy to North American markets. Portuguese Island Colonies. Portugal’s colonies very early adopted the practice of leeching. For example, in the 1690s a young Portuguese girl with fever was leeched successfully in the enclave of Daman (Damão) on the west coast of India.73 About this same time João Ferreira da Rosa, Professor of Medicine at the 69 70 71 72 73

The Times (Hartford, CN), 9 March 1824, p. 1. Commercial Advertiser (New York, NY), 28 July 1828, p. 1. Commercial Advertiser (New York, NY), 4 August 1832, p. 1. Evening Post (New York, NY), 19 January 1831, p. 1. PEARSON, 2011, «Medical Connections and Exchanges in the Early Modern World», p. 7.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 University of Coimbra, referred to the use of leeches in an epidemic in Pernambuco in Brazil.74 Madeira: 1822-1853. In an early English guide to Madeira in 1808, it was specifically noted there were no leeches on the island.75 In 1811 Dr William Gourlay, physician to the British Factory (garrison) at Madeira, published an account of diseases in which leeches were recommended.76 Unfortunately, whether these were actual cases in Madeira, rather than in England, and the source of the leeches, are obscure. Better documented was the presence of imported leeches in Funchal as early as 1822, presumably at this time from native sources in Portugal. In any case they were remarkably expensive, as shown in the following advertisement placed several times in a local newspaper: «In the store of José Paulino Ribeiro, on Ferreiros Street, are sold leeches for 100 rs [each]»77

A visiting Englishwoman confirmed in her diary at this time that leeches in Funchal were being sold for 2 shillings, six pence each.78 Thirty years later thousands of leeches were being imported into Funchal reportedly on a monthly basis from “Lisbon and Gibraltar”. By this time the price had fallen to 30 to 60 reis each. We now know that these leeches did not originate in Portugal, but were being trans-shipped from Morocco via Lisbon and Gibraltar. Most of these leeches in the 1850s were stored in quantities of up to 15,000 at a specialist Leech Warehouse (“Deposito das Sanguesugas”), new in January 1853 and located on the first floor of 25, Rua dos Tanoeiros.79 This depository was adjacent to the Funchal customs house and conveniently close to the shipping docks. Interestingly, this building still exists today (Figure 3) but leeches are no longer sold. Furthermore, from the following advertisement it can be inferred that there was more than one leech dealer in Funchal at this time: «We have established in this City a new Warehouse with 15,000 leeches, priced at 60 and 40 reis each, at Rua dos Tanoeiros No. 25 A, in which it promises to sell for prices better than other establishments, requiring their correspondents to always send assortments from Lisbon or from Gibraltar every month.»80

74 ROSA,1694, Trattado Único da Constituiçam Pestilencial de Pernambuco, D.2. d.6. § 1, §2, §4, §7 (sanguexugas). 75 ADAMS, A Guide to Madeira [...], 1808, p. 18. 76 GOURLAY, Observations on the Natural History [...], 1811, pp. 98, 123. 77 O Patriota Funchalense (Funchal), 10 August 1822 (repeated 14 and 17 August 1822). 78 CALLCOTT, 1824 [2010], Journal of a Voyage to Brazil [...], p. 81. 79 O Progresso (Funchal), 22 Jan, 29 Jan, 10 Feb, 24 Feb, and 3 Mar 1853; O Amigo do Povo (Funchal), 1 Mar 1853; A Ordem (Funchal), 5 Mar 1853. 80 O Progresso (Funchal), 8 Jan 1853, p. 4.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Figure 3. The Original Warehouse (“Deposito das Sanguesugas”) at 25 Rua dos Tanoeiros, Funchal, where Leeches were sold in 1853

Source: Author’s image

The market for such large numbers of leeches remains undocumented but undoubtedly at least some were sold to passing ships in this strategically important port. Azores: 1833. Leeches were exported to the archipelago of Azores as early as 1833, if not before, as confirmed by the following advertisement on the island of Terceira: «At the Street of Gurita Casas No. 316 SE are sold good leeches at attractive prices. »81 81 Chronica dos Açores (Angra, Terceira). 11 Aug 1833, p. 4.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 About 1832-1834, Dr Joaquim Leite da Gama, then Director of the hospital at Ponta Delgada, reportedly threw into some ponds of the island of Sao Miguel some medicinal leeches which had come from Portugal in crates.82 More than 60 years later a “new” species of hirudinid leech, Hirudo chavesi, was discovered by Captain Fr. A. Chaves, Director of the Meteorological Observatory at Ponta Delgada, island of Sao Miguel.83 This species has been recorded more recently on several islands, but whether it constitutes a successful introduction needs further study.84 Cape Verde: 1843-1844. In the early 1840s thousands of leeches were imported annually into the principal town of Praia, Cape Verde. For example, a total of 9,000 leeches were recorded in the fourth quarter of 184385; and 4,000 in the third quarter of 184486.

Brazil: Largest Importer of Leeches in the New World, 1823-1888 Vast numbers of medicinal leeches crossed the Atlantic to Brazil in the 19th century. In fact, arguably, more leeches were exported to Brazil than to any other country in the New World. This huge demand overwhelmed the native sources in Portugal, and generated a large trade from non-Portuguese sources. Fortunately, this trans-Atlantic trade was documented in remarkable detail in various Brazilian periodicals for a continuous period of 65 years. Throughout this time leech dealers regularly advertised recent importations of leeches, and often cited specifically the ports of origin, names and types of ship, as well as quantities received. In addition, for much of this time local periodicals daily posted ships’ Manifests detailing every item on a recently arrived ship, including port of origin and itinerary, quantities of leeches on board and even the names of receiving agents. Similarly, Customs records detailed quantities of leeches and dutiable value, plus often the names of ships, and circumstances surrounding any impoundments for tax purposes. In fact these records on leech imports are remarkably detailed and probably unsurpassed by any other country (Table 3; Table 4). Table 3. Value and Quantity of Leeches Imported into Rio

82 83 84 85 86

Date

Quantity

Total No. Leeches

Value (reis)

1841-XI-18

1 case (“caixa”)

1,000

50,000

1841-XII-13

1 case

—

80,000

1842-III-2

1 case

—

8,000

1842-III-23

2 cases

5,000

700,000

1842-X-12

5 tubs (“tinas”)

5,000

550,000

1842-XI-2

—

1,400

60,000

1842-XI-12

5 tubs

5,000

600,000

1842-XI-28

4 tubs

4,000

900,000(sic)

1842-XI-29

1 case

1,000

40,000

1843-V-1

2 cases

—

120,000

1843-VII-14

6 tubs

6,000

790,000

1843-VII-20

1 case

—

70,000

1843-IX-7

1 pot “pote”

—

100,000

BARROIS, 1896, «Recherches Sur la Faune des Eaux Douces des Açores», p.121. BLANCHARD, 1896, «Campagnes de l’Hirondelle [...]», p. 197. RAPOSEIRO et al, 2012, «Azorean Freshwater Invertebrates [...]», Appendix II, p. 2. ANNALES MARITIMOS E COLONIAES, 1844, vol. 4, p. 100. ANNALES MARITIMOS E COLONIAES, 1845, vol. 5, p. 109.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7

1843-XI-11

8 tubs

—

500,000

1843-XII-21

5 tubs

—

750,000

1844-II-24

5 cases

5,000

1,700,000(sic)

1844-II-28

4 cases

3,000

1,495,000(sic)

1844-III-6

4 cases

—

455,000

1844-VI-4

2 tubs

2,000

380,000

1844-VI-12

4 tubs

4,000

10,000(sic)

1844-VIII-6

6 tubs

6,000

440,000

1845-I-9

2 tubs

2,000

150,000

1845-I-31

1 case

600

Contested

1845-II-18

3 cases

6,000

950,000

1845-VI-3

5 cases

—

1,700,000

1845-XI-12

13 cases

—

2,000,000

1845-XI-26

7 cases

—

1,200,000

1846-I-22

2 cases

2,000

120,000

1846-IV-2

1 case

1,600

120,000

1846-VIII-24

3 cases

—

400,000

1847-I-13

5 cases

2,000

600,000

1848-XI-16

5 tubs

5,000

550,000

1849-I-26

8 cases

20,000

1,500,000

1849-XI-5

3 tubs

—

525,000

3 cases

—

270,000

1854-I-1

Source: as declared by Customs in local newspapers.

Table 4. Value and quantity of leeches imported into Bahia Date

Quantity

Total No. Leeches

Value (reis)

1839-I-19

4 cases (“caixas”)

—

330,000

1839-IV-29

—

8,000

176,000

1839-VI-17

2 cases

—

110,000

1839-VII-11

9 cases

23,000

880,000

1844-IV-20

1 case 2 cases

— —

383,000(sic) 1,485,000(sic)

For week starting: 1855-II-10

4 cases

—

—

For week starting: 1857-II-1

1 case

—

—

For week starting: 1857-II-7

2 cases

—

—

Source: as declared by Customs in local newspapers.

Records for the City and Province of Rio de Janeiro were published mainly in Diario do Rio de Janeiro, Correio Mercantil and Correio Commercial. Those for the States of Bahia and Pernambuco were published in Correio Mercantil (Bahia) and Diario de Pernambuco (Recife), respectively. Other ports importing leeches included Sao Paulo, Belem and Matto Grosso. Fortunately, all of these periodicals are available digitally.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 In this study searches of these and other Brazilian periodicals yielded 1,350 “hits” for the key words in Portuguese for “leeches” (see Methods for a list of these key words), and this was far from exhaustive due to time limitations. A total of 709 specific shipments of leeches into Brazil were identified for the period 1823 to 1888, by far the majority of which entered into the port of Rio de Janeiro. Smaller, but significant, numbers of leeches entered the ports in Bahia, and Pernambuco (Recife). A major factor in the trans-Atlantic trade in leeches was the ascent of steamships which greatly increased the speed of transport of this perishable commodity. Virtually all leech shipments into Brazil during this period originated nominally from well known European ports.87 Only a few such ports dominated the leech trade to Brazil, but specific ports slowly changed their dominance over the decades. Initially Porto had a near monopoly, then various Mediterranean ports (Marseille, Lisbon, Malaga, Barcelona, and Genova), followed by steamships from Hamburg, Bordeaux, Havre and Southampton. These latter ports were almost entirely commercial centres for complex trans-shipments from still other counties. Method of Shipping Leeches. In terms of marine transport, leeches are more like frogs than fish in the sense that leeches can live indefinitely out of water as long as they are kept damp and cool. On long voyages across the Atlantic a quantity of leeches would be amassed together into a tightly sealed muslin bag or container, as they were masters of escape. Under such conditions they could live months without feeding, but they did need to be sprinkled or drenched with fresh water every few days. A damaged or stressed batch of leeches became noticeably smelly, as was well known to customs officials. The packaging in which leeches were shipped to Brazil were described usually as cases (“caixas”) or tubs (“tinas”), both of which typically contained approximately 1,000 each (Table 5). The latter container was made of wood as we know from one occasion in which customs sold an empty wooden tub which once held leeches.88 Interestingly, customs gave differing rebates depending on the type of packing used for shipping leeches. Earthenware pots holding up to 1,000 leeches were used to ship leeches from Rio to dealers further inland. Leech jars of superior quality earthenware were advertised in 1833 (Figure 4), not unlike their counterparts in England at the time.90 89

Table 5. Quantity of Leeches Imported into Rio de Janeiro Week Starting

Quantity Imported

1843-I-18

35 tubs (“tinas”)

1844-VIII-16

2 tubs

1844-VIII-30

6 tubs

1844-IX-13

14 cases (“caixas”)

1845-I-18

35 tubs

1845-X-3

4 tubs

1845-X-10

8 cases

1845-X-17

4 cases

1845-XII-12

12 tubs

1847-IV-30

4 tubs

Source: based on weekly declarations in local newspapers.

87 88 89 90

Two shipments nominally originated in New York but stopovers, if any, were not specified. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 9 Dec 1848, p. 5. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Jan 1830, p. 2. Correio Mercantil (Rio de Janeiro), 20 April 1833, p. 2.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Figure 4. Advertisement Selling Earthenware Containers to Store Leeches

Source: Correio Mercantil (Rio de Janeiro), 20 April 1833, p. 2.

Customs, Duty and Leech Contraband. As a high value commodity the Brazilian government imposed a duty on importation of medicinal leeches. As shipments entered the port local customs declared the quantity and value of the leeches in local newspapers (Table 3; Table 4). In 1860 the tariff was 1,500 reis per pound of leeches by weight, or 10% of designated value. There was some rebate depending on the type of packaging, more discount for leeches shipped in cases (“caixas”), or tubs (“tinas”), than in pots (“potes”) or glass (“vidro”).91 Customs regularly impounded shipments which were undeclared, unclaimed, unmarked, damaged or in an unhealthy state, and sold them (“vivas e mortas”) at dockside auctions to the highest bidder.92 For example, two cases of leeches going to Rio Grande from Rio were impounded in 1851 because they did not appear on the manifest of the steamer Paraense.93 Customs were particularly alert to contraband leeches, those which were smuggled or were undeclared by incoming passengers as personal property. In 1857 the Portuguese galley Bella Portuese had two passengers with false papers involving two barrels of drugs and a case of leeches; the ship was thoroughly searched from 9 am to 6 pm but no further contraband was found.94 Occasionally the value and resultant duty assigned to a shipment was disputed by the receiving agent. In 1845 the invoice assigned by customs on one case of 600 leeches was contested by agent David Jose Leite, results unknown.95 In 1847 a tribunal ruled that the interpretation of the duty regulations applied to five impounded cases of leeches imported by Izaac Amzalak was too strict.96 Similarly, in 1854 an appeal by agents Aranaga & Bryan was upheld and the court dismissed the case regarding three cases of leeches and 18 birds imported into Rio on the Spanish brig Paquete de Tarragona.97 In 1852 a fine was imposed and upheld on the captain of the French galley France e Bresil for not declaring 10 tubs of leeches.98 Such disputes gave the impression of being levied disproportionately against foreign ships.99 Export from Porto. Initially, in the 1820s and early 1830s virtually all leeches imported into Brazil were collected from native sources in Portugal, and the bulk of these were exported from the port of Porto, not Lis91 TARIFA DAS ALFANDEGAS [...], 1860, p. 91. 92 Diario de Pernambuco (Recife), 20 July 1836, p. 4; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 23 May 1838, p. 3; Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 19 Jan 1839, p. 4;17 June 1839, p. 3; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 20 Dec 1842, p. 2; 2 Mar 1842, p. 2; Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 20 April 1844, p. 3; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Jan 1851, p. 3; 8 Jan 1854, p. 2; 12 May 1860, p. 3; 10 Mar 1863, p. 2. 93 Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 31 Mar 1851, p. 1. 94 Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 10 Oct 1857, p. 1. 95 Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 31 Jan 1845, p. 2. 96 COLLECÇÃO DAS DECISOES [...], 1847, Vol. 10, p. 198. 97 Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Oct 1854, p. 1. 98 Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 26 March 1852, p. 1. 99 Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 19 Jan 1839, p. 4; 17 June 1839, p. 3.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 bon. As suggested above, this was because Porto was geographically closer to the source of the leeches than was Lisbon. The first identified shipment of leeches imported into Brazil arrived in Rio de Janeiro from Porto on 6 October 1823, although leeches undoubtedly had been imported even earlier: «Anyone who wants to purchase leeches [“bixas”], recently arrived from the City of Porto, please contact the barbershop at 59, Ourives Street, where they sell for 240 rs each. [...]»100

From this date in 1823 leeches were imported from Porto on a regular basis annually until 1832 when there was an abrupt break in shipments (Table 1). These resumed in 1835 at a much lower level until 1839 when this port effectively stopped shipping leeches. Export from Lisbon. Leech shipments from Lisbon to Rio had a more complicated history compared to those from Porto (Table 6). Those from Lisbon started several years later, and were fewer in number, especially noticeable during Porto’s peak years of 1829-1832. Yet, Lisbon also experienced an abrupt break in the early 1830s, there being no shipments during 1834 until 1838 (with exception of one in 1836). However, when Lisbon resumed exports to Rio in 1838 they continued at a low level for another 25 years, the last recorded in 1862. Unlike Porto in the 1820s, however, Lisbon never became a major player in the trans-Atlantic leech trade to Brazil. Table 6. Summary of numbers of leech shipments exported from Lisbon, Portugal, into Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, during period 1821-1865 Year

Shipments

Year

Shipments

Year

Shipments

1821

0

1836

1

1851

0

1822

0

1837

0

1852

3

1823

0

1838

2

1853

2

1824

0

1839

5

1854

2

1825

1

1840

0

1855

2

1826

1

1841

0

1856

1

1827

4

1842

4

1857

3

1828

1

1843

3

1858

0

1829

3

1844

1

1859

0

1830

3

1845

2

1860

0

1831

1

1846

0

1861

1

1832

1

1847

2

1862

1

1833

2

1848

3

1863

0

1834

0

1849

1

1864

0

1835

0

1850

0

1865

0

Source: data based on Diario do Rio de Janeiro.

100 Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 6 Oct 1823, p. 2.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Re-Export from Lisbon. The resurgence of leech exports from Lisbon after 1838 (Figure 5) is attributable to trans-shipments of leeches from a new source, namely Morocco.101 Portuguese customs records reveal that they were being purchased as a monopoly in Morocco, in 1851 for 9,000 to 9,200 reis per 1,000, i.e approximately 9 reis each.102 These same leeches were being sold in Rio at a typical price of 100-200 reis each, a markup of over 1000-2000%. Owing to its strategic geographical location and excellent harbour, Lisbon became an important stopover for ships, especially steamships belonging to the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company (P&O) carrying leeches from Gibraltar (Morocco) to Southampton.103 Figure 5. Advertisement. Superior Leeches coming from Lisbon on the Portuguese brig Nova Amisade, selling for 200 reis each

Source: Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 15 Sept 1845, p. 3.

Although Lisbon played a role in trans-shipping leeches from Morocco, either as a re-exporter or only as a stopover port, this Moroccan trade was complex and lies outside the scope of this paper: «... Of these last [leeches] we received an immense number under the names of Portuguese and Spanish leeches. The emperor [of Morocco] disposes of the exclusive privilege of buying the leeches which are brought to the towns of Larache, Tangier, and Tetuan, for six thousand dollars. Small boats from Malaga, Gibraltar, Cadiz and Lisbon, receive these leeches at about $4.50 per thousand, and take them to their respective ports, where they are transhipped for the United States and South America, and become the Portuguese and Spanish, and in some case, the Swedish leeches of the trade.»104

Thus, leeches originating in Morocco often still carried the brand “Lisbon Leeches” in Brazil and elsewhere, such was the increasingly complicated leech trade. Lisbon Brand of Leeches. The leech trade in Brazil was highly competitive with the market dominated by two competing “brands” described variously as “Lisbon” versus “Hamburg”, or “Green” versus “Black”. The so-called Black leeches were darkly pigmented, and this was especially characteristic of the dark undersides (Figure 6). This type of medicinal leech originated in northern Europe, and were exported almost exclusively from Hamburg, hence the “Hamburg” brand.

101 102 103 104

HECHTEL and SAWYER, 2002, «Toward a Taxonomic Revision of the Medicinal Leech Hirudo medicinalis [...]», pp. 1270, 1287. COLLECÇÃO DAS INFORMAÇOES [...], 1851, pp. 74, 232. Hampshire Telegraph (Portsmouth), 28 June 1845; Hampshire Advertiser (Southampton), 12 July 1851, p. 4. HUNT, 1841, «Morocco and its Facilities for American Commercial Enterprise», p. 501.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Figure 6. An 1827 Depiction of the “Hamburg” or “Black” Brand of Leech which gained Popularity in Brazil from the 1850s.

Source: MOQUIN-TANDON, A., 1827, Monographie de la Famille des Hirudinées, Paris, Gabon and Co., pp. 114-118. Observations: Note the characteristic deeply pigmented underbelly from which it gets its name. The “Lisbon” or “Green” leech lacks this pigmentation so that its underbelly is basically green.

The Green leeches were readily identified from the green, unpigmented underside, and were exported primarily from countries bordering the Mediterranean. They were initially exported from coastal regions of Portugal until these were exhausted. Then, Green leeches came in considerable numbers from Morocco, Algeria

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 and Tunisia (where they were also called “Trout Leeches” in English, and “Dragon Leeches” in French); these were trans-shipped via Portugal, Spain and France. Still later, Green leeches originated in Hungary and Turkey where they were trans-shipped in great quantities via France, particularly Bordeaux. Because they initially hit the market from Portugal the brand name “Lisbon” for Green leeches prevailed for many years even though they mostly did not originate in Portugal. Advertisements for Black leeches (“bichas pretas”)105 suddenly appeared to distinguish them from the more familiar Green leeches. Dealers generally promoted the two types impartially, eg “pretas e verdes” or “grandes bichas de Hamburgo e de Lisboa”.106 Others debated the relative merits of one brand versus the other, some stating the Hamburg leeches were superior (“superiores bichas de hamburgo”),107 “the most excellent to come to market,”108 or more genuine (“verdadeiras bixas de europa”)109, whereas others sold Lisbon leeches on the basis of price. The following advertisement in 1855 promoted the Hamburg brand even though the Lisbon brand was half the price: «GENERAL WAREHOUSE OF HAMBURG LEECHES 39, Assemblea Street For sale in thousands, hundreds and retail, per hundred at 30,000 rs, 25,000 rs and 20,000 rs; applied at 160 rs and 80 rs each; and those from Lisbon at 15,000 rs and 12,000 rs per hundred.»110

Ascendency of Steamship Transport in 1850s. For the first half of the 19th century leeches were shipped from Europe in a variety of wind-driven vessels of differing designs and speeds, eg bark, packet, panache, galley and schooner. They were brought to Brazil on ships of many national flags, including Spain, France, Italy, England, Germany, Austria, Russia, Denmark, Sweden and United States. These journeys were slow and hence precarious for safe transport of perishable commodities such as leeches. By way of example, in 1847 the Portuguese bark Venus carried leeches from Lisbon to Bahia in 37 days. On virtually the same day another brig arrived Bahia from Gibraltar having made a «very rapid voyage of 26 days».111 The ascendency of steamships (“vapors”) in the 1850s significantly improved speed, and allowed transport of leeches to Brazil over ever greater distances. For example, in 1870 the steamer Olbers made the crossing from Liverpool to Rio in 20 days, carrying four cases of leeches.112 Recife assumed greater prominence with the age of steam, and even established a new warehouse for all trans-Atlantic steamships. Leeches were typically housed in this warehouse.113 The first recorded steamship bringing leeches into Brazil was the English steamer Teviol carrying the first of many shipments from Southampton to Rio in November 1852.114 Other English steamers were added over the next 20 years, including the Medway, Tamar, Oneida, Magdalena, Atagama, Araucania and Magellan, all of which made regular trips to Brazil. These English steamers regularly made stopovers at the Atlantic ports of Le Havre, Bordeaux and/or Lisbon, sometimes picking up additional leeches. The first French steamer on record was L’Avenir out of Marseille in 1854. After leaving Marseille with eight cases of leeches, L’Avenir proceeded to Genova, Malaga and Lisbon (where it picked up an additional 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 31 Aug 1835, p. 3; 28 June 1842, p. 4; Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 25 May 1847, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 21 Jan 1856, p. 8; Diario de Pernambuco (Recife), 1 Dec 1842, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 24 Oct 1858, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 22 July 22 1853, p. 4. Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 26 Sept 1848, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 12 Jan 1855, p. 3. Correio Mercantil (Bahia), 26 May 1847, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Nov 1870, p. 3. Diario de Pernambuco (Recife), 15 February 1870, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 10 Nov 1852, p. 3.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 six cases of leeches) 115 Significantly, in 1860 the French steamer Estremadure carried 25 cases of leeches from Bordeaux. This was the beginning of a major trade throughout the 1860s and 1870s between Bordeaux and Rio, as well as Recife.116 Other French steamers, involved primarily in the Bordeaux trade, were the Guienne, Bearne, Navarre, Amazone and Sindh. Those coming from Bordeaux typically stopped at Lisbon, where occasionally they picked up additional leeches. For example, in August 1862 the Estremadure, already with 32 cases of leeches from Bordeaux, picked up four cases in a stopover in Lisbon.117 The first Portuguese steamer was the D. Maria II which carried 5 cases of leeches from Lisbon to Rio in 1855. The following year the D. Pedro II carried four cases of leeches on the same route.118 The first German steamer was the Teutonia which carried six cases of leeches from Hamburg to Rio in 1857. The next day a different German steamer Petropolis arrived in Rio with nine cases of leeches from Hamburg. Interestingly, both ships stopped at Southampton but did not pick up leeches.119 These two named vessels were virtually the only German steamers carrying leeches between Hamburg and Brazil at this time. English steamers, namely the Santos and Ato, occasionally carried leeches from Hamburg to Rio in the 1870s. However, steamers did not replace wind-driven ships, and this was especially noticeable on the Hamburg-Rio route.

Importation of Leeches from Non-Portuguese Sources From the 1830s the vast majority of medicinal leeches exported to Brazil did not originate in Portugal. These exports from non-Portuguese sources are not directly relevant to the history of the Portuguese leech trade, apart from relatively minor trans-shipments via Lisbon. However, from the Brazilian perspective importation of leeches from non-Portuguese sources was an increasingly significant factor which is summarised briefly below (Table 7). Table 7. Comparison of the Major Ports of Origin of Leech Shipments Imported into Rio de Janeiro, Bahia and Pernambuco (Recife) in the 19th Century

115 116 117 118 119

Origin

Rio de Janeiro (1823-1877)

Bahia (1838-1849)

Recife (1827-1879)

Porto

108

5

4

Hamburg

103

2

23

Bordeaux

66

0

7

Lisbon

57

7

17

Southampton

40

0

6

Le Havre

32

1

3

Marseille

20

0

2

Malaga

12

0

2

Gibraltar

10

4

0

Cadiz

9

1

0

Barcelona

8

0

0

Tuscany

7

0

0

Genova

5

1

0

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Feb 1854, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Aug 1860, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 20 Aug 1862, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Apr 1855, p. 2; 29 Apr 1856, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 7 May 1857, p. 4; 8 May 1857, p. 4.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7

“Portugal”

3

3

1

“Europe”

20

15

13

Unknown

42

2

1

Other

12

4

1

Source: based primarily on data from Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio), Correio Mercantil (Bahia) and Diario de Pernambuco (Recife), respectively.

In the 1830s and 1840s large numbers of leeches originated in Morocco, as mentioned above. These were trans-shipped to Brazil mainly via Malaga (12 shipments to Rio recorded in this study), Gibraltar (10) and Cadiz (9), not to mention Lisbon (discussed elsewhere). Some leeches originating in the French colonies of Algeria and Tunisia were trans-shipped primarily from Marseille (20). In the 1850s through 1870s three major European ports dominated the leech trade to Brazil, namely Hamburg, Bordeaux and Southampton. In each case export started abruptly with advent of steam transport. Millions of leeches were imported over a period of several decades, but in each case the leeches did not originate in their respective countries. They were collected elsewhere and re-exported to Brazil, mainly to the port of Rio de Janeiro. Hamburg (1838-1885). The first record of leeches imported on a German vessel was on 19 April 1831 when the Hamburg-registered galley Cantor brought six cases of leeches to Rio. However, the first shipment unequivocally embarking from Hamburg was on 15 June 1838 when the manifest of the galley Diana declared five barrels of leeches (“barrilinhos bixas”) to the customs at Rio.120 From that date for well over 40 years great quantities of leeches from Hamburg were regularly imported into Rio, Recife, Bahia, and other ports (well over 100 shipments) (Figure 7). For example, in 1844 a total of 109 “tubs” of leeches, i.e. between 100,000 and 200,000 leeches, were imported that year alone from Hamburg to Rio.121 They were shipped to Matto Grosso as late as 1883122, and directly to Belem in 1885.123 These leeches did not originate in Germany, but instead were collected further east in Ukraine, Belarus and even Russia.124 Figure 7. Advertisement. Leeches arrived from Hamburg on the French packet Navarre, selling for 40,000 reis per 1,000 (terms 60 days) and 4,000 reis per hundred (cash).

Source: Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), Nov 20, 1860, p. 4.

120 121 122 123 124

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 15 June 1838, p. 2. Gazeta Official do Imperio do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro), 21 Sept 1846, p. 3. O Iniciador (Corumbá, Matto-Grosso), 27 March 1881, p. 4; 22 March 1883, p. 4. Diario do Gram Para (Belem), 19 Nov 1885, p. 3. SAWYER, 2013, «History of the Leech Trade in Ireland [...]», pp. 427-428.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Bordeaux (1845-1877). There is no better example than Bordeaux to demonstrate the commercial impact of steam transport to the trans-Atlantic leech trade. Between 1845 and 1857 only three small shipments of leeches were carried from Bordeaux to Rio, all via sailing vessels.125 Then, abruptly in August 1860 the French steamship Estremadure brought a remarkable 25 cases of leeches, and in the following November the steamer Navarre brought no fewer than 34 cases.126 From this date for the next 17 years a total of 63 shipments of leeches went from Bordeaux to Rio, virtually all by French and English steamships. The numbers involved were large, typically over 30 cases of leeches per shipment, and on one occasion a total of 43 cases arrived on a single steamer.127 The majority of Bordeaux leeches were shipped to the dominant leech dealers in Rio of that period, including a large, specialist firm with the unlikely name of Monster Leeches (“Bichas Monstros”), as well as another prominent importer P. Juvanon (Figure 9).128 The leeches exported from Bordeaux did not originate there. Instead they came from northwest Africa, Hungary and Turkey. These imported leeches were kept in man-made ponds in the environs of Bordeaux, an enterprise dominated by the firm of Bechade and Co (still in existence as Ricard-Derest-Bechade). In this context it is noteworthy that on one steamer in 1864 half of the leeches (17 of 34 cases) were received in Rio by “F. Bechade”, undoubtedly related to the parent facility in Bordeaux.129 Southampton (1852-1870). Prior to arrival of the first leech-carrying English steamship in 1852, no leeches had been imported into Brazil from England. From this date for nearly 20 years large numbers of leeches were imported on a regular basis from Southampton into Rio, and to a lesser extent to Recife. Since England had long exhausted its own sources of leeches Southampton was an unlikely exporter of this commodity. With the rise of steam Southampton became a major importer of leeches via Lisbon from Gibraltar (Morocco) and possibly elsewhere.130 Leeches Exported from Brazil. Brazil occasionally re-exported small quantities of leeches from Rio to neighbouring countries of Uruguay (Montevideo) and Argentina (Buenos Aires) (Table 8). For the most part these countries were supplied directly from Spain (from leeches collected in Morocco), but 1853, 1860 and 1861 must have been exceptional years. In 1854 there is an inexplicable record that fives cases of leeches were shipped from Rio to Lisbon!131 Table 8. Summary of Leeches Re-Exported from Rio de Janeiro to Neighbouring Countries Countries

Date

Quantity (cases / “caixas”)

To Montevideo, Uruguay

1846, Oct 2

3

1846, Sept 25

1

1853, Jan 19

4

1860, Sept 6

3

1846, Oct 2

3

1853, Mar 3

4

1853, Nov 27

9

1853, Dec 20

2

To Buenos Aires, Argentina

125 126 127 128 129 130 131

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 18 Dec 1845, p. 2; 3 Nov 1856, p. 4; 25 Mar 1857, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Aug 1860, p. 2; 20 Nov 1860, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 18 Jan 1863, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 20 Aug 1862, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 20 Sept 1864, p. 3. Hampshire Telegraph (Portsmouth), 28 June 1845; Hampshire Advertiser (Southampton), 12 July 1851, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 15 Feb 1855, p. 2.

311

Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7

1854, Feb 18

2

1855, Mar 31

1

1860, Aug 8

3 + 1 (1,000 leeches)

1861, July 25

6

1861, Nov 8

3

Source: based on data from Diario do Rio de Janeiro.

Insatiable Demand for Leeches in Everyday Brazilian Life Brazilian Barbers. The Brazilian barber was the prime economic force generating the vast trans-Atlantic leech trade to Brazil in the 19th century. In many ways they were similar to their counterparts in Portugal. Both were responsible for the sale and application of leeches, and were also skilled in bleeding and wet cupping. In other ways, however, they were quite different, notably in terms of the much higher prices for leeches, larger numbers of leeches consumed, and the underlying racial undertones. For these reasons a brief account of the prominent role of barbers and their close affiliates the leech dealers affords an understanding of what was driving the leech trade over such distances. The earliest leech dealer on record in this study advertised in Rio de Janeiro on 27 October 1821: «Barber Chaves gives notice to the respectable public, that he has a selection of leeches [“bixas ou sanguixugas”] of the best possible quality, and which he sells for a good price. Those who want to buy them should come to Quitanda Street No. 4C, between Violas and Pescadores Streets.»132

This ad clearly presupposes that leeches had been imported into Brazil prior to this date. It should also be noted that Quitanda, Violas, Pescadores and adjacent streets in the docks area of Rio de Janeiro was a popular area for selling, and importing, leeches for more than fifty years. As a rule the larger dealers were located in the docks areas of port cities and relied heavily on import agents, sometimes on a large scale. Recife was surprisingly busy in the 1850s. For example on 3 August 1858 one incoming ship from Europe off-loaded four cases and five tubs of leeches, which were consigned to four different agents.133 About this time Rio was even busier. On 3 May 1860 an incoming steamer originating in Southampton carried 20 cases of leeches, requiring the services of five different agents; similarly, on the following 4 September five agents handled 11 cases of leeches via the same routing. 134 There were far more leech dealers in Rio than in Lisbon, and competition was keener. In 1853 a total of nine leech dealers (“Mercadores e Depositos de Sanguesugas”) were competing in Rio, virtually all located near the harbour.135 Some of these dealers specialized as sizeable wholesalers, selling leeches by the hundreds and sometimes even thousands. The earliest truly wholesale dealers in Rio, i.e. selling leeches in the thousands, was recorded in October and November 1832; this volume of sales was attributable to recently received leeches from non-Portuguese sources.136 One such wholesaler on Pescadores Street announced that he was able to sell leeches in the thousands because of a single large shipment recently received.137 The barber/dealers were true businesses which persisted for years, sometimes as family enterprises. In at least one instance a widow carried on the business after her husband died, namely the Widow Silva and Com132 133 134 135 136 137

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 27 Oct 1821, p. 2. Diario de Pernambuco (Recife), 3 Aug 1858, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 3 May 1860, p 3; 4 Sept 1860, p. 4. ALMANAK ADMINISTRATIVO [...], 1853, p. 484. Correio Mercantil (Rio de Janeiro), 18 Oct 1832, p. 2; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 10 Nov 1832, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 12 July 1838, p. 4.

312

Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 pany at 76 Pescadores Street, Rio de Janeiro.138 On another occasion two brothers formally dissolved their joint business, and each carried on independently selling leeches: «Antonio Jose de Almeida, has dissolved business with his brother Joaquim Jose Beptista at 11 Sacramento Street, and is setting up the same line of business at 242 Hospicio Street, near Sacramento. He has a good assortment of leeches, best prices....»139

Some barber/dealers obviously prospered and had more than one business location. For example, in 1839 one barber advertised leeches at his three locations in Rio, namely 6 and 39 Conde Street, and 4 Lapa Street.140 On the other hand one went into liquidation and was forced to sell his barber slave who was responsible for applying leeches.141 In a similar context the estate of one deceased barber included the sale of his stock of leeches, such was their inherent value.142 In addition to barbers, leeches in Rio could also be obtained in a variety of other establishments, including authorized dentists,143 pharmacists,144 general stores145 and even a pasta maker (“fabrica de macarrão”).146 Leeches were simply too expensive and inaccessible to the indigent in Brazil. In this context remarkable charity was given to the needy poor on the part of several barbers in Rio. One announced publically that he gave leeches «free by Love of God (“Amor de Deos”) to those in difficult circumstances».147 Such charity continued until November 1828, after which this practice discontinued.148 Great quantities of leeches were consumed by local hospitals, jails and military institutions, all of which had sizeable annual expenditures. In July and August 1869 a total of 11,440 rs was spent on leeches and teeth extractions on various prisoners; and in the following October and November 20,800 rs was spent for leeching and cupping prisoners. Similarly, in April, 1870, 27,580 rs was spent on leeches.149 As was the case in Lisbon, local and military hospitals invited dealers annually to bid to supply leeches, and sometimes to contract to apply leeches directly to the patients.150 This bidding process continued until at least 1905. In the State of Paraiba the Chief of Police invited to supply medicines, including leeches and cupping cups, for the public prison of this capital for the trimester from 3 Nov [1904] to 3 Feb [1905].151 The Brazilian navy required as part of its standard medicaments that a certain number of leeches to be carried on each ship. In 1873 every four months each frigate and corvette must have 280 leeches, whereas the smaller brigs carried only 100.152 In this context a Russian galley left Rio for Batavia, Dutch East Indies, with 12 cans (“bilhas”) of leeches on board.153 Africa, Slavery and Leeches. More than a million slaves were shipped from Africa to Brazil in the 19th century. In spite of a claim otherwise154, these slaves did not bring with them the skill of applying leeches. 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 16 Nov 1842, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 15 Apr 1844, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Apr 1839, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 14 Dec 1848, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 24 Dec 1830, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 4 June 1824, p. 4; 11 Apr 1827, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 22 Oct 1827, p. 1; Diario de Pernambuco (Recife),5 October 1831, p. 858. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 28 Sept 1830, p. 2; 23 Sept 1831, p. 2. Jornal do Commercio (Rio de Janeiro), 16 Jan 1829, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 12 Feb 1827, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Oct 1822, p. 2; 21 Oct 1823, p. 2; 7 July 1824, p. 2; 12 Feb 1827, p. 2; 18 June 1827, p. 2; 29 Nov 1828, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 17 Oct 1869, p 2; 16 Dec 1869, p. 1; 12 Apr 1870, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 18 June 1858, p. 3. Correio Official (State of Paraiba), 27 Oct 1904, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 18 June 1858, p. 3; COLLECÇÃO DAS DECISÕES [...], 1874, Vol. 36, p. 205. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 5 Oct 1840, p. 2. CANIZARES-ESGUERRA, 2013, The Black Urban Atlantic [...], p. 215.

313

Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 However, a sharp distinction must be made here. The practice of bleeding and wet cupping (using cow horns) was widespread in Africa155, but leeches were not used medicinally in any part of sub-Saharan African prior to contact with Europeans.156 Furthermore, there is no evidence that leeches were imported from sub-Saharan Africa into Brazil, in spite of one unsubstantiated and possibly misleading claim that they were shipped from Angola.157 The latter shipments could not be corroborated in this study in which more than 700 specific shipments of leeches into Brazil were documented from 1823 to 1888. During this period not one shipment originated in Angola or any other part of sub-Saharan Africa. If such imports did occur, they constituted at best a minuscule component of the enormous numbers of leeches imported into Brazil from Europe and Northwest Africa (Morocco). The sale and use of leeches in Luanda, Angola, is undeniable158, but historically this was part of the Portuguese diaspora and not a tradition originating in Angola. The British navy enforced its anti-slavery policy by policing potential slave ships. On 29 Aug 1849 the British ship Phoenix seized the Portuguese sailing vessel Leao destined to Rio de Janeiro, upon suspecting that she was carrying slaves. The subsequent court hearing at Boa Vista, Cape Verde, concluded that Captain Manoel Joaquim de Fontes was innocent of slave trafficking. Interestingly, the hearing revealed that the captain had one box of leeches in his personal possession, and that these apparently embarked at Gibraltar.159 In Rio de Janeiro at least one specialist barber school was established to teach slaves the art of applying leeches (white boys were also taught in the same building)160. For the most part these slaves were young boys recently arrived from Angola161, Mozambique162, and the Congo163. Such leeching skills were widely recognized as conveying additive value to the slave. From time to time, for example, these barber-slaves were advertised for sale, and their leeching skills were prominently mentioned164. One very young man was promoted as a good barber, bleeder, capable of applying leeches, and with enough infirmary experience to be useful on any farm or on a vessel to the Coast of Africa.165 Another not only could apply leeches he could also play the fiddle166 Still another could play the flute.167 Some slave-barbers were hired out by their owners.168 It was not unusual for leech dealers to announce the sale of leeches and the sale of a slave in the same advertisement169. One leech dealer placed an advertisement to purchase 60 to 80 slaves for a far journey.170 One dealer sold 13 slaves, one of whom applied leeches, in order to settle a debt.171 At least three fugitive slaves were described by their owners as having scars from old leech bites.172 In the context of social history it is revealing to compare the price of a slave with that of a leech in 19th 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172

For example, MONTEIRO, 1875, Angola and the River Congo, pp. 262-263. Personal communication, Medical Leech Museum, Swansea, UK. MONTEIRO, 1875, Angola and the River Congo, pp. 266-267. SCHAPERA, 1963, Livingstone’s African Journal, 1853-1856, Vol. 1, p. 188; MONTEIRO, 1875, Angola and the River Congo, pp. 266-267; ALMEIDA SANTOS, 1970, Vinte Anos Decisiovos [...], p. 274. «Abstract of Evidence in the Case of the “Leao”», ACCOUNTS AND PAPERS [...], 1851, Inclosure 9 in No. 124, pp. 121-122; also, Naval Database. Phoenix 1832-1864. www.pbenon.plus.com/18-1900/P/03505.html. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 16 Aug 1822, p. 3. Correio Mercantil (Rio de Janeiro), 21 Jan 21 1831, p. 2; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 16 July1842, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 5 Mar 1828, p. 2; 12 Apr 1836, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 26 June 1837, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 12 June 1826, p. 5; 26 Oct 1826, p. 1; 19 Dec 1827, p. 1; 5 Mar 1828, p. 2; 28 Feb 1829, p. 1; 14 Jan 14, 1830, p. 2; Correio Mercantil (Rio de Janeiro), 21 Jan 1831, p. 2; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 5 Jan 1835, p. 2; 12 Apr 1836, p. 2; 11 Sept 1843, p. 3. Diario Mercantil (Rio de Janeiro), 5 July 1826, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 3 Feb 1830, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Sept 1843, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 14 Jan 1830, p. 2; 10 Nov 1832, p. 2; 8 June 1833, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 21 Aug 21 1825, p. 1; Farol Maranhese (Maranhao, Brazil), 21 Apr 1829, p. 104; Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 11 Sept 1830, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 31 Mar 1832, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 17 Aug 1835, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 16 July 1842, p. 4; 6 Dec 1842, p. 4; 14 June 1854, p. 3.

314

Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 century Brazil. In this context two slaves skilled in applying leeches were each selling for 600,000 rs,173 and another was selling for 650,000 rs174 (Figure 8). In 1844 a girl trained in domestic duties was selling for 220,000 rs.175 As late as 1854 a reward for a 15-year-old fugitive slave was set at 300,000 rs.176 For the most part leeches sold for an average of 200 (80-480) rs each, depending on size and condition. However, on one rare occasion at its peak a single leech was advertised at 1,280 rs177 In other words at one point the life of a barber slave was worth as little as 500 leeches, and that of a domestic girl for less than 175 leeches. This reflected more on the high price of leeches than on the low price of slaves. Figure 8. Advertisement. «Whoever wants to buy two black Barbers; they both know how to bleed, take teeth, apply cups, apply leeches; they are of good conduct, have no defects, good for boarding the East Coast, to be good bleeders: I want to sell them because I want to go to the farm; the price of each one is 600U reis; Go to Rua Misericordia N. 238, where I will tell you who I have to sell»

Source: Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Dec 1827, p. 1.

The large black population constituted a major market for leeches, for those owners who could afford them. In this context large numbers of leeches were used on poor and especially black prisoners financed by jail budget178. Military hospitals also used large numbers of leeches. One such free black soldier in 1850 was delirious in hospital and twice had 12 leeches applied to his anus, and another 12 applied to his mastoid apophysis.179 Barber shops in Brazil sold leeches, but they gained more income by applying them. This rather menial and bloody task was carried out by both white and black barbers in the same shop. Some white clientele clearly preferred to be leeched by white barbers, some of whom were prepared to travel some distance.180 Recurring Theme: High Price of Leeches. The price of leeches in Brazil remained persistently high for most of the 19th century. Even as late as 1882, a French observer noted: «In Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), leeches sell 1 fr. 50 c. each. ... One has to be a prince of finance to be able to pay for the pleasure of asking 50 leeches on his stomach.»181 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Dec 1827, p. 1. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 13 Jan 1831, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 16 March 1844, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 14 June 1854, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 30 May 1829, p. 1. A Aurora Fluminense (Rio de Janeiro), 17 Sept 1834, p. 4. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 9 Aug 1850, p. 8. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 17 July 1827, p. 2; 25 Feb 1829, p. 1; 20 Sept 1830, p. 3. BARBIER, 1882, «Souvenirs de 40 Ans de Pratique Médicale», p. 237.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 Leech farming or hirudiniculture in Brazil was proposed as a practical means to reduce the prices of leeches, and Brazil’s dependency on this expensive import. In this context in the spring of 1836 a public notice referred to Fedelis Carboni setting up a leech farm in the Province of Rio de Janeiro.182 Much later, in October 1857 the imperial government granted a license to E. Rogie and Jeaunot to establish a leech breeding facility.183 In 1861 Mr Juvanon, manager of Moraud & Co, Suppliers to the Royal Naval Hospital, placed regular advertisements illustrating his leech ponds in the marshes of Fonseca, municipality of Nitherohy adjacent to the harbour at Rio de Janeiro (Figure 9).184 In 1862 a leech holding facility was linked to the Asylum of Santa Leopoldina.185 In February 1866 the Emperor approved that a display of hirudiniculture be presented at a forthcoming special exhibition of live animals and plants.186 The following year at the World Exposition of 1867 in Paris the Province of Rio de Janeiro presented a leech display consisting of two cases of large and small leeches, respectively.187 Figure 9. Advertisement. Leech Ponds in Fonseca, Town of Nitherohy. Moraude & Co, Suppliers to the Royal Naval Hospital. Mr Juvanon, Manager

Source: Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 10 July 1861, p. 3.

Another approach to reducing expenditure on leeches was the use of artificial or mechanical leeches. In 182 183 184 185 186 187

Correio Official (Rio de Janeiro), 22 Mar 1836, p. 1; O Universal (Ouro, Minas Gerais, Brazil), 23 June 1837. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 4 Oct 1857, p. 2. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 10 July 1861, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 30 June 1862, p. 1. COLLECCAO DAS DECISOES [...], 1866, vol. 29, pp. 71, 76. O IMPERIO DE BRASIL [...], 1867, Rio de Janeiro, p. 16.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 1849 the head of the medical school in Rio de Janeiro received two boxes from Vienna containing such devices which promised to replace leeches, along with instructions on how to use them.188 Subsequently such artificial leeches were advertised in local periodicals. For example, in 1855 “sanguesugas artificiaes” were advertised by Eduardo Gaquerel, manufacturer of surgical instruments.189 This ad was repeated seven times. Artificial leeches were still being advertised in Rio de Janeiro as late as 1878.190

Discussion The trans-Atlantic trade in medicinal leeches in the 19th century was big business on an almost unimaginable scale. In economic terms this was an enormous drain on the finances of Brazil, United States and other countries in the western hemisphere. A significant but heretofore unappreciated factor in this lucrative one-way commerce was that medically useful leeches lived nowhere in the New World.191 Of course, a number of other species of leech lived in this vast area but none was suitable for bloodletting or venesection. In the United States the so-called American medicinal leech Macrobdella decora is basically a frog leech. It has rudimentary jaws and teeth which generate relatively little bleeding on human skin in comparison to that of the European medicinal leech Hirudo medicinalis.192 In the absence of any contemporary alternative species early American doctors attempted to use M. decora with unsatisfactory results, and a small domestic trade in this native species arose to a limited extent, especially around Philadelphia.. This was abandoned with advent of organized import of the European medicinal leech, initially from Portugal as discussed above. Similarly, for all its geographic size and diversity Brazil did not have any native leech species which could be used medicinally, for the same biological reasons.193 Taxonomically, it remains unresolved whether the species found in Portugal was Hirudo medicinalis or its closely related congenitors H. verbana194, or H. troctina.195 For the purposes of this paper, unless indicated otherwise, this taxonomic question was not addressed, ie. the generally accepted term “medicinal leech” refers to any of these very closely related forms which were interchangeable in terms of the leech trade. In spite of the millions of Hirudo spp. which were exported across the Atlantic in the 19th century there is no evidence of a successful introduction, with the possible exception of the Azores discussed above. Finally, still another species of bloodsucking leech lives in Portugal but was not involved in the leech trade. This is the so-called “nasal leech” Limnatis nilotica, a species which lurks in various types of waterways in Portugal and neighbouring countries. Accounts of leeches in the Portuguese literature can easily be confused between the nasal leech and the true medicinal leech(es) discussed in this paper. The nasal leech has small mouthparts normally incapable of piercing human skin. However, it is highly adapted to feeding in the nasal cavities of mammals, typically cattle, horses, mules and donkeys, which drink water from native sources. As early as 1708 reference was made to a water source for cattle where leeches abound (Villa do Cano in Alemtija).196 In Lisbon itself as late as 1833 leeches were attracted to drinking mules.197 Humans are sometimes an accidental host with debilitating consequences. During the Peninsular War there are several accounts of soldiers drinking from streams and consequentially getting nasal leeches in their noses with debilitating results. For example, invading French soldiers encountered these leeches in 1807: 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197

Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 26 Sept 1849, p. 1. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 7 Aug 1855, p. 3. Diario do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 26 June 1878, p. 4 SAWYER, 1986, Leech Biology and Behaviour, Vol. 2, pp. 686, 782, 789-790. MUNRO et al, 1991, «Bleeding in human volunteers from the bite of the American medicinal leech Macrobdella decora [...]», p. 214. RINGUELET, 1945, «La Sanguijuela Medicinal Argentina», pp. 467-471. UTEVSKY, 2010, «Distribution and Status of Medicinal Leeches [...]», p. 201. HECHTEL and SAWYER, 2002, «Toward a Taxonomic Revision of the Medicinal Leech Hirudo medicinalis [...]», pp. 1270, 1287. COSTA, 1708, Corografia Portugueza, Vol. 2, p. 624. «Recollections of Lisbon», in The Saturday Magazine (London). 28 September 1833, No. 79, 119-120.

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Anuário do CEHA 2015, N.º 7 «About 3 leagues from Estremoz there is a fountain on high ground; the only place where water can be procured between that town and Elvas. In 1807 a French brigade on its march to the latter drank greedily of this fountain, and in a short time a great number of the soldiers began to complain of intolerable pains in the chest, throat, and nose. It was found that with the water they had swallowed a multitude of small leeches. The surgeon directed them to inhale a strong solution of salt and water through the nose, a remedy which, however painful, was successful in every instance.»198

Five years later, in 1812, English soldiers fell to a similar fate when they came upon a large springs (Fuentes del Maestro) on the Spanish side of the border: «The thirsty soldiers, fatigued with the heat and long march, flew at once to this reservoir; and kneeling, and placing their hands on the low wall that surrounded it, they dipped their dusty muzzles up to the ears in the cool element, and quaffed away like fishes.... The consequence was awful in the extreme... «Next morning, about a hundred and fifty of them came sick to the different regimental Hospitals, and at first their cases looked alarming, for they were all spitting blood. On examination it was ascertained, that they had fished up three or four hundred leeches from the old fountain, which, it seemed, was full of the little wretches. These blood-suckers had attached themselves in the mouth, nostrils, throat, gullet, and even the stomach; higher or lower, according to the vigour of their own adhesive powers,, of the strength of suction of the drinkers. We certainly had a bloody day at the Hospital, although no lives were lost, except the leeches....»199

Unlike the much-valued medicinal leech, Limnatis nilotica had no commercial value in Portugal or elsewhere. Ironically, however, this species did play a minor role in agricultural commerce in that it was accidentally exported with livestock as an unwanted parasite. For example, in 1840 cattle exported from Portugal on ships were found with nasal leeches in their buccal cavities.200 This appears to have been a mechanism for inadvertently introducing this nuisance species to regions previously uninhabited by this leech. In this context this was probably how L. nilotica was introduced into the Azores, possibly as early as 1832.201 In 1851 dead cattle were reported at Charco de Madeira on the island of Sao Miguel.202

Acknowledgements I would particularly like to thank Zélia Dantas, Regional Archive of Madeira, Funchal, for discovering several obscure leech advertisements in early newspapers, and for her invaluable contribution in pointing out the various spellings and slang words for “leeches” in 19th century Portuguese. Thanks also go to Dr Luis Miguel Jardim, Director, Regional Archive of Madeira, for inviting me to visit the archives. I also acknowledge the assistance of Maria Antónia Pires de Almeida, Centre for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa; Dr Maria Judite Alves, Museu Nacional de História Natural e da Ciência, Lisbon; Dr William E. Moser, Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C; UK National Archives at Kew; and the digital collections of the Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal in Lisbon, and especially the Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil in Rio de Janeiro.

NEALE, 1855, Handbook for Travellers in Portugal, p. 39. HENRY, 1843, Events of a Military Life, Vol. 1, p. 78. WILSON, 1841, «Parasitic Leeches in the Buccal Cavity of Animals», p. 473. Revista dos Açores, 1851, vol. 1, p. 116; BARROIS, 1896, «Recherches Sur la Faune des Eaux Douces des Açores», p. 121; BLANCHARD, 1893, «Voyage du Docteur Théodore Barrois aux Açores», p. 40; RAPOSEIRO et al, 2012, «Azorean Freshwater Invertebrates [...]», Appendix II, p. 2. 202 Revista dos Açores (Ponta Delgada, Sao Miguel), 1851, Vol. 1, p. 116.

198 199 200 201

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