Second Temple Period

21
ii

LIBERTY UNIVERSITY



SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD:
PERSIAN PERIOD TO DESTRUCTION OF TEMPLE



A RESEARCH PAPER SUBMITTED TO DR. WILLIAM J. SUBASH
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE COURSE NBST510

LIBERTY BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY


BY
KELLY BRADICICH


LYNCHBURG, VIRGINIA
OCTOBER 5, 2015


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1
Backdrop: Second Temple Period 2
Persian Period (539-331 BC) 2
Greek Period (331-167 BC) 4
Alexander the Great (331-320 BC) 4
The Ptolemaic Period (320-198 BC) 6
The Seleucid or Syrian Period (198-167 BC) 7
Jewish Self-Rule (167-63 BC) 8
The Maccabees (167-135 BC) 8
The Hasmoneans (135-63 BC) 9
The Roman Period (63 BC-AD70) 11
The Herodian Dynasty 11
The Roman Emperors and Governors of Palestine 14
Destruction of Second Temple (AD 70) 16
Temple Destruction Effects on Jews 16
Conclusion 18
Bibliography 20


Introduction
There are two topics that are frowned upon to discuss when in a conversation, politics and religion. Nevertheless, this research paper will attempt to encapsulate the brutal political events as well as the problematic religious influence beginning with the Persian period and continuing through the destruction of the Second Temple. Fighting, conquering, disputing, attacking, criticizing, murdering, and overthrowing, ultimately to gain power and wealth, is much of what took place during this time. Major historical events that impacted the Jews and the territory of Israel will be highlighted, with an emphasis on the importance of the Second Temple, and its destruction and devastating effects on the first-century Jews in the New Testament times. All of this activity is what led to the state of affairs recorded in the New Testament and consequently has been instrumental in changing lives. God is sovereign and every event and every influence was a part of his divine plan.


Backdrop: Second Temple Period
The Second Temple period was formerly called the intertestamental period and ran from the time of the building of the Second Temple in 515 BC by Zerubbabel to its destruction by the Romans in AD 70. In order to grasp a better understanding of the Jesus in the Bible, and more specifically, the Gospels and the entire New Testament, exploiting the political and religious aspects of history must take place. This period is comprised of four notable crises affecting the Jewish people, which will be discussed.
Persian Period (539-331 BC)
The Persian period is usually taken to refer to a time when the Ancient Persians were in power throughout the Near East. This period begins with Babylon coming under attack when Cyrus, the King of Persia, builds his Persian Empire. He became king around 557 BC. This empire consisted of about a third of the entire world. One momentous event was that Cyrus authorized the Jewish community that had been exiled to Babylon since 587 BC to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple of Yahweh. The Jews could finally return to their homeland in Judea. Within the first year of his reign, the Lord moved the heart of Cyrus to fulfill a word spoken by the Lord. The word says:

"This is what Cyrus king of Persia says: The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at Jerusalem in Judah. Anyone of his people among you – may the Lord his God be with him, and let him go up."
This is important to mention since this is the temple (Second Temple) that will eventually be destroyed which will be elaborated later in this research paper. With the Jews returning to Judea from exile and without a central place to meet and worship (temple) this posed enormous religious issues. For example, the ceremonial elements used in traditional Jewish customs were temporarily taken over by observance of the law rather than animal sacrifice. Characteristically, religious customs and traditions are meaningful to their followers. Something worth noting is that Cyrus' foreign policy was to allow conquered peoples to maintain their local customs and religions in their homeland. There was favor upon Cyrus given by the Lord to ensure that anything previously destroyed in Judah would be restored as the Lord wanted. Additionally, the Lord spoke about Cyrus being his shepherd and that he will accomplish what the Lord pleases. The Lord was specifically denoting that the temple be rebuilt and the land inhabited. There were plans of restoration and rebuilding but the rebuilding of the temple did not begin immediately. The temple, the holiest of places, carries significance in that this is where the Jewish people believe God's presence resides. Without a temple, many traditions, customs, rituals, and sacrifices could not be properly carried out. There were battle after battle to gain more territory or protect the existing territory but after the Persians ruled for more than 200 years, this empire eventually fell to the Greeks, in the year 331 BC.
Greek Period (331-167 BC)
The Persian period witnessed the birth and development of Judaism, and the Greek its testing. Because of the previous dispersion that took place with the Jews, they began to take on aspects of other cultures. They learned the Greek language and in fact a demand for a translation of the Jewish scriptures into Hellenistic Greek became imperative. This was not only for the benefit of the Jews but also to commend the Jewish race and religion to the Greek world. The Greek period involved establishing more Greek cities and forming an overall Greek culture. "Hellenization" is the historical spread of ancient Greek culture - the pervasive impact of Greek culture. The Greeks call themselves Hellenes from the fabled ancestor of the race.
The Greek period is divided into three phases: (1) Alexander the Great (331-320 BC); (2) the Ptolemaic period (320-198 BC); and (3) the Seleucid or Syrian period (198-167 BC).
Alexander the Great (331-320 BC)
As Alexander the Great began his conquest, he proved to be exceptionally powerful. He was educated in both the military and academics. His goal was to defeat others and conquer as much territory as possible. The Grecian period began after he conquered Palestine and then he moved onto Persia. As the Greeks continued to influence those in and around Palestine, there began the spread of Hellenism. He inherited Macedonia after his father was assassinated, and in 332 BC, Alexander claimed a victory over the Persian king, Darius, at the Battle of Issus while he continued to lead his armies down the eastern coast of the Mediterranean to the city of Tyre. Alexander was becoming known all around the lands connecting Africa and Asia, and ambassadors and leaders were quite terrified. Alexander conquered Gaza and Syria and just as Darius was being pursued by Alexander, Darius was killed. With no one else to claim the throne in Persia Alexander took over and was declared as the new world ruler. Alexander seemed to be in the right place at the right time. The Judean leadership in Jerusalem also came and offered submission to Alexander. This was when Greek ideology and philosophy took up residence in Jerusalem. This obviously impacted the Jews of that time - when the Jews were heavily exposed to Greek culture and language. Alexander's plans were to establish Greek cities everywhere he could and introduce the Greek way of life (Hellenization). This new way was infiltrating the Jewish way of life. Alexander the Great continued on with excessive power only to die at the age of 33. After his death was the collapse of the Persian Empire which was the first notable crisis for the Jewish nation. This empire offered religious freedoms that the Jews sought and enjoyed but now the Greek kings would push to gain power and spread their "superior" culture. Alexander's generals attempted to keep the empire together but over the next decade, wars continued and the empire divided. Only one of Alexander's generals, Ptolemy I Soter, formed a successful kingdom.
The Ptolemaic Period (320-198 BC)
Palestine first came under the jurisdiction of the Egyptian ruler, Ptolemy, in about 320 BC. Every ruler of Egypt until AD 30 bore the name "Ptolemy" regardless of descent – they were basically Greek kings of Egypt. The period grew the Greek world and it offered new opportunities, especially for the Jewish people. With what they had been facing, they were certainly learning to extemporize new ways of living. In Judea, innovations in agriculture, growth of commerce and the extensive Ptolemaic administration offered the opportunity to members of the new Jewish elite to test their business talent and reach lucrative positions. The greatest was the city of Alexandria, Egypt. Everything began to center around Greek, including the libraries, architecture, culture, language, and businesses. As briefly mentioned, even the Hebrew Torah would be translated into Greek. Evidently, about 70 scholars were commissioned to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, which is referred to as the Septuagint. This was to help the Jews who knew Greek better than the Hebrew language. Thus, this was a part of God's plan to use Hellenism to prepare the world for the Gospel of Jesus. The Jews were scattered in Egypt as many were deported to Alexandria awhile back and Alexandria became the influential center of Judaism. Even by the first century, the population in Alexandria was 750,000 of whom at least a third were Jews. While the Ptolemies had gained control of Egypt, another Greek dynasty, the Seleucids, attained Babylon. After much battling between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies, particularly battling over Palestine territory, the control of Palestine passed from Egyptian to Syrian hands and would never return.
The Seleucid or Syrian Period (198-167 BC)
So much for "would never return" for the control of Palestine. The Syrian control over Palestine last only 31 years. The Romans defeated Syria and took control over Palestine. A hostage situation, large tax burdens and bribes wreaked havoc in this region. Antiochus IV (Roman ruler) called himself Epiphanes (the Glorious One) implying he was the incarnation of Zeus on earth. The Jews were not at all happy with this man as he was evil and full of hatred concerning the Jews. His focus was the demise of the Jews while first forcing Hellenization. This ruler was prophesied in the Bible when Daniel was given the interpretation of his vision by an angel. It says:

"…a stern-faced king, a master of intrigue, will arise. He will become very strong,
but not by his own power. He will cause astounding devastation and will succeed
in whatever he does. He will destroy the mighty men and the holy people. He will
cause deceit to prosper, and he will consider himself superior. When they feel secure,
he will destroy many and take his stand against the Prince of princes. Yet he will be
destroyed, but not by human power."

After many other events took place Antiochus was confronted by a Roman Legate who insisted he retreat or face the wrath of Rome, of which he agreed. A selling of the priesthood to a non-Zadokite named Menelaus showed blatant disregard for the Jews. Antiochus hid and some thought he was dead but instead he attacked on a Sabbath murdering men, women, and children and stole the golden temple furniture. He continued on to displease the Jews. He built a fortress in Jerusalem and filled it with his loyal troops. Antiochus endeavored to ban Judaism, including prohibiting the possession of the Torah, circumcision, festivals and offerings to Yahweh, which was the second notable crisis for the Jewish nation. This was in essence a ban on Judaism and anyone who resisted Antiochus' attempts were badly persecuted. His evil acts against Judaism appalled the Jews especially when he dedicated the Jerusalem Temple to Zeus, the head of the Greek pantheon, and sacrificed a pig on the altar.
Jewish Self-Rule (167-63 BC)
The Maccabees (167-135 BC)
The Maccabean period is named for the third son, Judas, of Mattathias. Mattathias was an old priest and was bribed by a representative of Antiochus with gold and silver if he would make an offering to the gods, which he refused. Another Jewish man took the money and made the sacrifice, and Mattathias killed this man and fled. This is what sparked the Jewish Self-Rule. Antiochus finally died in 163 BC.
The Maccabees were known for their quest for independence and a kingdom of priests.
Judas was nicknamed Maccabeus, the hammer, and because of his efforts, Antiochus' representative rescinded the ban on Judaism. With the ongoing disputes about cities and territories, Simon, Judas' brother, argued that the Jews have not seized foreign lands that belonged to others but have simply taken back "the heritage of their fathers." Simon eventually captured the Syrian citadel in Jerusalem (called the Akra), which marked the beginning of the national autonomy. The Jewish nation highly respected Simon and gave him the high priesthood. Unfortunately, Simon and two of his sons were murdered by his son-in-law, Ptolemy; however, the surviving son, Hyrcanus, defeated Ptolemy. The Maccabees eventually weakened and became a group of Hellenizing despots (cruel rulers).
The Hasmoneans (135-63 BC)
The name, Hasmonean comes from Hasmon, great-grandfather of Mattathias. Simon's son, John Hyrcanus, was the first Hasmonean ruler. He continued to seize territories and even spread over to Judean territories while he prepared for the arrival of King Herod. After Hyrcanus died, his son, Aristobulus I proclaimed himself as a Hasmonean king. He was known to conquer Galilee and established Jewish communities there. Not too long after, he died and his brother, Alexander Janneus, took over and ruled as a Hellenistic king. Eventually he died and his wife, Salome Alexandra, took over the kingdom; she was the only queen of the Hasmonean's and reigned from 76 until 67 BC. After Salome died her two sons were heirs and fought for the Hasmonean kingdom. While this was occurring, the Roman armies conquered the Seleucid kingdom while both brothers entreated to Rome.
During the time of the Maccabean/Hasmonean reign, the Pharisees became very socially active, and politically were lay leaders. The Pharisees were a group of Jews who obeyed very strictly both God's laws and all their own rules about God's laws. The Pharisees made up the Sanhedrin which was a ruling council of Jews in Jesus' time, overseeing the court system (breaking of Jewish laws). At some point the Sadducees arose and these two groups were often in opposition. The Sadducees were great supporters of the Hasmonean dynasty whereas the Hasidim (a Jewish group) who initially supported the Hasmoneans, turned against them. This Jewish group split into two groups: the Pharisees, who remained in Jerusalem and the Essenes, who departed. None of the Hasmoneans appreciated the support of the Pharisees except for Salome; she was successful at repairing the relationship with them as they dominated the Sanhedrin.
Interestingly enough, the Pharisees instituted the "synagogue" which were independent centers for political action, community worship, and schools devoted to Torah study. These activities were similar to those conducted in the temple but since the temple was controlled by the Sadducees at that time, they instituted the synagogue.
In 63 BC, the army of the Roman General, "Pompey the Great," invaded Palestine, destroyed part of the Jerusalem Temple, and ended the Hasmonean state. The independent Jewish self-rule had come to an end and Rome was now in charge of Palestine. This was the third notable crisis since the Jews would now be ruled by the Romans.
The Roman Period (63 BC-AD70)
The Herodian Dynasty
As noted above, Palestine was now under Roman rule and looked similar to the Syrian rule. Meanwhile, several men were competing for the power to lead, like Antigonus (the heir of Aristobulus II), Hyrcanus II, Antipater (the Idumean), and Antipater's sons, Phasael and Herod, and Herod was given Galilee and Phasael received Judea. Antigonus was not happy about these designations and had Phasael killed; he later took the title of king and high priest for three years and was the last of the Hasmoneans. With Phasael dead, Herod was named the "King of Judea" (also known as "King of the Jews") by the Roman Senate in 40 BC. Herod was considered an interesting man. He came with power and a diverse background. Some scholars believe that Herod could legitimately be characterized as Phoenician by decent, Hellenized by culture, Idumaean by place of birth, Jewish by religion, Jerusalemite by place of residence, and Roman by citizenship. There has been some controversy about whether or not Herod was Jewish by religion or forced to convert years back. Apparently, there is evidence that Herod considered himself a Jew and was regarded as such by the Romans. He often sought to avoid offending the Jews and at other times he would completely violate the Jewish laws. He had a reputation not to be in his right mind.
Herod was successful in bringing richness to Judea and in fact he spent some of his wealth on many public works and building programs as well as the expansion of the temple. Herod was known for this most beautiful project which was the reconstruction of the Jerusalem (Second) Temple (also known as the Herodian Temple) in about 20/19 BC. The Second Temple was already built at this time but Herod insisted on making major changes and adding significant enhancements; hence, why it was referred to as the Herodian Temple. Around the time of Jesus' public ministry, work on the temple had been ongoing for almost half a century (John 2:20). The reconstruction of the temple continued even past Herod's death.
Herod was a paranoid and brutal man and becoming suspicious of some of his sons and wife (Mariamne) that they were plotting against him to take over his kingdom, he caused their demise. Even Caesar Augustus (Roman Emperor) reported saying it was better to be Herod's pigs than his son.
Furthermore, Herod was an irrational tyrant and when he learned about the birth of Jesus, he felt quite threatened. This was particularly because, as mentioned earlier, the Romans gave Herod the title of "King of the Jews." In the Bible, there is this reference to Jesus as he was born, which says:

"After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, during the time of King Herod,
Magi from the east came to Jerusalem and asked, 'Where is the one who has been
born king of the Jews?' We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him."
Herod did not want anyone else recognized as the King of the Jews. On the other hand, the Jews refused to accept or honor an Idumean, such as Herod, who was no descendant of David. Herod tried to maintain a good balance between the various cultures but he often leaned towards the Greco-Roman culture and therefore the Jews continued to reject him.
Eventually, dementia took over Herod's mind and as he approached his death, he ordered some prominent citizens to be arrested and to be executed upon his death, which never took place and they were released. After Herod's death, a few of his sons took over his ruling in the various areas he ruled. The Herodian dynasty lasted for about one hundred years.
The Roman Emperors and Governors of Palestine
After AD 6, Judea was made a Roman province and therefore was under the rule of Roman imperial governors. (These officials are customarily called procurators by modern scholars but only during the reign of emperor, Claudius, (AD 41-54) was when this term came into effect). During this time, the Jews experienced some leniency with some requirements as some would not suspect being ruled by the Roman governors. For example, they were allowed to mint coins without offensive images, containing names only but nothing referring to their god. This is important to note because even though the Jews could mint their own coins, they could not mint them the way they preferred. These were coins made by Jews for Romans. Flavius Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, who wrote two major works, Jewish Antiquities and the Jewish War, is one to add flavor to the understanding of first-century Judaism. Archaeologists have found coins stamped with "Year Two/The Freedom of Zion, Year Three/The Freedom of Zion, and Year Four/The Redemption of Zion;" these were coins of what Josephus would call the Jewish War.
The coins minted and used daily reminded the Jews that they were being "tolerated" by Rome. However, the Jewish people stuck together as their traditions and strong belief in God would not separate them. The Jews were also allowed to handle their own courts, collection of taxes, and religious worship.
Just before the New Testament era, Julius Caesar was assassinated in the Roman Senate by Brutus which initiated the name Caesar to become the title for all Roman emperors. Caesar Augustus after a victorious defeat became the first Roman emperor. During this time, Augustus, who ruled in Rome from 31 BC to AD 14, advanced peace, stability, and affluence. After Augustus, Tiberius reigned while John the Baptist and Jesus lived. The Roman province was ruled by emperors and governors and other designees. The Roman governor of Palestine during Jesus' ministry was Pontius Pilate. There was not much support for the Jewish nation by Pontius or by Tiberius or his administrator. Eventually Pilate was removed from office by the Roman governor of Syria and it was recorded that he later committed suicide. In time, there were several Roman emperors who were all known for their brutality, especially Claudius (41-54), who expelled the Jews from Rome. There continued to be discontent between those who ruled and the Jews no matter where Jews lived. Particularly, ever since the Romans stepped foot in the land of Israel it has not been good for the Jewish people. In 64-66 there was a procurator named Gessius Florus who disrespected the Jews and a widespread strife broke out in Jerusalem, which is referred to as the "Great Revolt." There was an uprising in the country and many different forces were involved in this revolt. In fact, there were so many different groups that were fighting that they all battled against each other and is why the revolt did not succeed.
Destruction of Second Temple (AD 70)
Nero was another Roman emperor (54-68) who was known for being wicked as well. He despised Christians and persecuted them every chance he could. He appointed the experienced Vespasian to lead the attack on Judea. Vespasian had taken Galilee and shortly afterwards he became emperor due to Nero's death. Vespasian handed off responsibilities to his son, Titus, to take action in Palestine. By Passover of 70, under Titus' command, one-by-one the Romans breached the walls of the city, and eventually crushing and burning the temple. This concluded as the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple. This was the fourth notable crisis for the Jews since there would no longer be a place for temple worship; hence the sacrificial system would cease.
Temple Destruction Effects on Jews
A fascinating prophecy proclaimed by Jesus in about AD 30 - surprising his disciples by declaring that "not one stone here will be left on another." Jesus had foretold the temple's destruction – the Romans who had placed Herod as ruler were the ones who destroyed his temple – which fulfilled Jesus' prophecy for AD 70.
The destruction of the Second Temple was devastating to the Jewish people; although, they were extremely resilient even considering the disastrous outcome of their temple and overall land. It did not take long for them to begin flourishing again in Palestine. Conversely, the destruction of the temple held significant spiritual effects and carried troubling implications. The temple was a holy place to worship and practice their customs, offer priestly tithes, animal sacrifices and other traditions. They strongly believed that this destruction could never happen. In fact, it was said that first-century Jerusalem insisted that "everything appears to promise that it will last." The Jews learned the truth and the sentiments of Benjamin Franklin: "In this world nothing is certain but death and taxes."
The temple was a prominent figure in the life of Jesus as well. He was dedicated in it and he referred to the temple as "his father's house." The temple was a symbol of God's glory and protective care for Israel. This left the Jews vulnerable and troubled. The Jewish people had to devise new ways to practice their customs. This included how to observe holidays and festive occasions in the absence of a temple. There were great implications that one may not imagine for a Jewish nation that is stringent on their religious traditions and customs. Some customs had to be altered because some Jews believed that perhaps their spiritual connection between Israel and God was permanently destroyed. Furthermore, the Jewish people felt that the temple offered the presence of God within the temple and if there were no temple, they lost the ability to communicate with God. This was undoubtedly a spiritual crisis for them. They believed wholeheartedly in the Scriptures that "then have them make a sanctuary for me, and I will dwell among them." Opportunely, varieties of Judaism had flourished before 70, especially the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes and nothing suggests that these philosophies had to cease because the temple was destroyed. It would take creativity and effort to establish new systems and ways to worship. Many scholars theorize that synagogues originated in the Babylonian exile (606-539 BC) when the Jews were required to adapt to not having a temple. This was one option that the Jews implemented for a system of worship which preserved the imminence of God they once experienced. In addition to what was stated earlier, the synagogues served as soup kitchens, schools, and town halls, and people came and fed one another and taught one another; despite the power of Rome and the culture of Greece, they always had "tradition" and now had the "synagogue."
Conclusion
First-century Palestine and the Second Temple period clearly demonstrated three important features: Judaism in all its varieties, the Roman Empire in all its power, and Greek culture in all it expressions. From all of the bloody attacks to the overthrow of governments, the Jews continued to be negatively affected. Each of the periods surveyed in this paper candidly revealed the viciousness against the Jews and God's orchestrated plans.
During the Persian Period, the Lord used Cyrus to work his plans to get the temple rebuilt and inhabit the land. The Greek Period grew Hellenization which God planned to ensure this universal language would prepare people to read the Scriptures. During the Jewish Self-Rule, the ban on Judaism was overturned restoring some privileges and traditions. During the time of Augustus in the Roman Period, he fostered peace, which prepared for Jesus' ministry to flourish. Finally, the destruction of the Second Temple was already prophesied by Jesus and needed to be fulfilled. The effects on the Jews after the temple destruction clearly pointed to their anguish and their longing for their Messiah. Nevertheless, as God has promised, someday there will be peace in Jerusalem.
All of these historical events, groups, and leaders were all a part of God's plans. As Paul mentions in his letter to the Galatians, "the Lord Jesus appeared when the time had fully come." Thus, Jesus' timing is always perfect. The conditions when Jesus came were ideal: uncharacteristic peace for many years prior to his arrival, numerous roads built throughout the Roman Empire providing easier travel, the Greek language being spoken throughout the Roman Empire and abroad as well as the New Testament written in this language, and the greater anticipation of the promised Messiah, all perfectly prepared for the Gospel to be shared in a profound way. Besides, God made it very clear that he is always in control and he will eventually overthrow anyone who destroys the temple. In the end, God always gains the victory and every event and every influence was a part of his divine plan.


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Andreas J. Kostenberger, L. Scott Kellum, and Charles L. Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown (Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2009), 59. .
Jenny Rose, Oxford Bibliographies: The Persian Period, last modified May 29, 2015, accessed 09--01-2015, http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361.xml.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 64.59.
John Curtis and Nigel Tallis, eds., Forgotten Empire (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2005), 12.
Erhard Gerstenberger, "Israel in the Persian period: the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature," 2011, accessed September 9, 2015, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost.
Curtis and Tallis, Forgotten Empire, 12.
2 Chron. 36:22 (NIV).
2 Chron. 36:23.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 63.
Ibid., 64.
Isa. 44:28.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 64.
Ibid.
. Charles Foster Kent, Editorial, A history of the Jewish people during the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek periods, no. 11 (1899): 299.
. Ibid., 300.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 65.
Milton Hopkins Tipton, ed., Editorial, Online Study of Universal History (1858): 3.
Ibid.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 65.
Ibid.
Ibid., 65.
David L. Dungan, Constantine's Bible-Politics and the Making of the New Testament (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2007), 21.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 66.
Ibid.
Dungan, Constantine's Bible-Politics and the Making of the New Testament, 21.
Ibid.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 66.
Ibid., 66–67.
Ibid., 67.
Ibid.
. Stephan de Jong, "QOHELET and the Ambitious Spirit of the Ptolemaic Period," Journal for the Study of the Old Testament (03-01-1994): 91.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 67.
. Ibid.
Norman F. Cantor, Alexander the Great-Journey to the End of the Earth (New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, 2005), 28.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 68.
Cantor, Alexander the Great-Journey to the End of the Earth, 29.
Ibid., 68.
Ibid.
Ibid., 68.
Dan. 8:23b-25.
Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 69.
Ibid.
Ibid., 69.
. Ibid.
Ibid., 69.
Ibid.
Ibid., 70.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Kostenberger and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 69.
. N. Koltun-Fromm and M. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests: Ancestry and Merit in Ancient Judaism. Association for Jewish Studies.AJS Review, 2008, accessed September 14, 2015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0364009408001232.
Kostenberger and Quarles and Crown, 69, 70.
Katell Berthelot, "Reclaiming the Land: Hasmonean Discourse between Biblical Tradition and Seleucid Rhetoric," Journal of Biblical Literature 3, no. 33 (01-01-2014): 1.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 71.
Ibid.
. Ibid., 71.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
. Ibid., 71.
Ibid.
. Ibid., 73.
. Ibid.
. Ibid., 72.
The Holy Bible, NIV – concordance.
. Ibid.
. Ibid., 72.
. Ibid., 72–73.
Dungan, Constantine's Bible-Politics and the Making of the New Testament, 21.
. Kenneth Atkinson, The Militant Davidic Messiah and Violence Against Rome: The Influence of Pompey On the Development of Jewish and Christian Messianism. Scripta Judaica Cracoviensia 9, 2011, accessed September 14, 2015, Abstract retrieved from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1030421964?accountid=12085.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 73.
. Ibid., 74.
. Ibid.
. Ibid., 74.
. David J. Bryan, "The Herodians: A Case of Disputed Identity: A Review Article of Nikos Kokkinos, the Herodian Dynasty," Tyndale Bulletin 53, no. 2 (2002), accessed September 23, 2015, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost.
. Ibid.
. Kostenberger and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 73.
. Lawrence H. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism (Hoboken, NJ: Ktav Publishing House,, 1991), 145.
. William H. Marty, The World of Jesus (Bloomington, MN: Bethany House Publishers, 2013), 131.
. Kostenberger and Quarles and Crown, 73, 74.
. Ibid.
Matt. 2:1-2.
. Marty, The World of Jesus, 136.
. Kostenberger and Quarles and Crown, 74, 75.
. Scott Korb, Life in Year One:What the World Was Like in First-Century Palestine, (New York, NY: Penguin Group, 2010), 54.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 76.
. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism, 146.
. Kostenberger and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 76.
. Joel S. Kaminsky, ""Josephus: The Essential Works." Church History 66, no. 1 (1997): 185, accessed September 23, 2015, Abstract retrieved from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/217488785?accountid=12085.
. Scott Korb, Life in Year One:What the World Was Like in First-Century Palestine (New York, NY: Penguin Group, 2010), 52–53.
. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism, 146.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 76.
. Ibid., 77.
. Ibid.
. Ibid., 77.
Acts 18:2.
. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism, 158.
. Ibid., 160.
. Ibid., 161.
. Ibid.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 78.
Matt. 24:2.
. Marty, The World of Jesus, 140.
. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism, 161.
. Ibid., 175.
. Ibid.
Luke 2:22-24.
Luke 2:49.
. Martin Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem (New York, NY: Random House, 2007), 424.
. Luke 2:49.
Exo. 25:8.
. Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem, 426.
. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism, 166.
. Korb, Life in Year One:What the World Was Like in First-Century Palestine, 157.
. Ibid., 48.
Zech. 12:6, 9 and Joel 3:16-17.
Gal. 4.4.
. Kostenberger, Kellum, and Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown, 79.
Ezra 6:12.