Temples

Marcel Westerlund

Temples

I hereby declare that the materials contained in this essay are entirely the product of my own work, that sources used are fully documented and that the whole has not previously been submitted for any other purpose.

1

This paper will explore the origin, development , and function of the cult- and mortuary temple, providing a core institution throughout the ancient Egyptian civilization. From the simple pit graves of the Badarian culture (44004000BC), over the bigger and more elaborate Naqada II graves (3500-3200BC), ancient burial customs suddenly evolved into pyramid mortuary complexes and finally exquisite cult- and mortuary temples during the New Kingdom (15501069 BC). The cornerstone of this 3 000 year old civilisation was always the central belief in afterlife, dwAt, the netherworld. For the uninitiated it seems that the Egyptians were obsessed with death. The truth is that every tomb and temple reflect a firm belief that life continued after death, and as such it had to be honoured through carefully cult- and funerary rituals. Were the cult and the mortuary temples separate institutions or were they perhaps only different by their functions? Is it possible that the king through his performed cultic acts, nb-itr-xt, and rituals, nt-a, actually unified the royal palace, the temple and the funerary cults in order to achieve mAat, balance and order? Every temple in ancient Egypt would be based on the "first occasion" by the island of creation at Edfu. Architecture and religious rituals would link earth with the sky (pt) and primeval mound of creation by symbolic representation provided by the temple construction, Snape (1996). Cultic performance was a ritual the Egyptians considered as a major act, Routledge, (2001), and when offerings, libation and censing was performed by kings and priests, they performed cultic acts, ir-xt, , and a ritual, nt-a. Whether the king or the priest attended a mortuary complex or a cult temple, the rituals were strict, formal and predictable.

2

Order was maintained by the king performing cultic rites in the temples but also by ceremonies and formal administrative duties in the palaces, Routledge, (2001). The funerary and temple rituals are full of sacred Egyptian symbolism, evident from the moment the king is stretching the cord of the new temple, to the moment of the sacred ceremony of the opening of the mouth. These rituals are highly reflected in a symbolism left in tombs and temples. A wooden label from Aha's (3000-2890 BC) tomb at Abydos has given evidence of the walled compund for the goddess Neith, suggesting early Dynastic temples or shrines, Bard, (2000). Evidence of figurines both from Elephantine, Abydos and Hierakonpolis, suggest Early Dynastic cult temple compunds, yet to be found, Bard, (2000). The function of these temples were different compared to funerary complexes, located outside towns, Bard, (2000). An Early Dynastic form of mortuary complexes, were Mastaba tombs. They were constructed of mud-bricks, marking the burial sites of Early Dynastic rulers during the old kingdom, Wikipedia, (2015). These tombs had a flat roof, and sloping sides, and these elite tombs preceded the pyramids that came during the 3d and 4th Dynasty. The mastaba was built with a north-south orientation which was essential for Egyptians so that they may be able to access the afterlife. The Narmer Palette and Narmer Macehead found beneath an old temple at Hierakonpolis, are Early Dynastic evidence of cult temple and symbolic practice , Bard (2000). On the front palette the Pharaoh is seen smiting his enemies, a scene usually repeated on most temple walls in Egypt. This theme was repeated by almost every Pharaoh on temple walls as a statement of a pillar (iw), rule (HqA) and power (wsr).

It is possible that this repetitive 3

symbolic representation, encouraged initiation and transformation of domestic and foreign foes and friends into final submission. The Pharaoh represented the gods power on earth. He was almighty. During the 4th Dynasty pyramid temples and the funerary cult was incorporated as a part of the grand scale pyramids, gradually creating a transition from earlier concepts of astronomical alignments into ideas about the sun-god Re, Malek (2000). Mortuary chapels where the deceased Pharaoh's ka could continue to be sustained became a part of pyramid complexes throughout the old and middle kingdom, Snape (2011). During the New Kingdom the cult of the deceased Pharaoh would continue in the mortuary temple dedicated to Amun-Re, Kamil (1976). Temples were surrounded by walls both to protect and keep ordinary people out, but during festivals people would have limited access, Manley, (1996), and Bell, (1997). During festival processions the god Amun-Re would be brought out of his inner sanctuary of the temple and carried in his divine barque from the east bank of the Karnak temple (ipt swt-the most select of places) down to the mortuary temple of Luxor on the west bank of the Nile, Ullman (2007). Senusret I (1956-1911 BC) started to build on what was later to be Egypt's most formidable religious institution for 1 500 years, Karnak temple. Following Egypt's reunification under Ahmose I, political and geographic unifications would be followed by a theocratic unification, something clearly evident in light of the vast cultic and economic resources provided to this religious core institution, Wilkinson (2000).

4

Fig. 1: The two main pylons of Ramses II at Karnak temple, Ipt-swt, seen in full splendour. Courtesy © Mark Millmore.

Today not much is left from old kingdom temples since they were built with mud bricks. The only ones left are those stone temples that were attached to pyramids and royal burials, intended for offering of food as worship of the dead King, Murray (1931). But by the dawn of New Kingdom we would finally be given an almost eternal evidence built in stone of how mortuary and cult temples were built, decorated and organized. Today Seti I mortuary temple at Kurna and and the most beautiful one, Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir-elBahri, are excellent examples of mortuary temples. In contrast the temple of Khonsu at Karnak, son of the gods Mut and Amun, is a good example of a divine, hwt-ntr, cult temple. The main difference today between mortuary cult and divine cult temples is the fact that the former barely outlasted their founders, while the latter became a ritual built in stone for millennia to come, Wilkinson (2000). 5

Fig. 2: Pillars with ancient paintings underneath lintels at the Karnak temple, Luxor, 2008. Photograph by author M Westerlund.

In mortuary temples are chapels in order to offer in front of the royal kA. The temple itself can still be a cult temple, and yet provide a place for mortuary temple offerings. Temples like Karnak, had many functions, and small mortuary chapels. One such example is Amenhotep I's reconstructed alabaster chapel. Seti I's temple in Abydos is another stunning example of a cult temple, also providing a mortuary chapel over Set I. This architectonic masterpiece is also a temple dedicated to Osisris, Isis, Ptah, Nefertem, Re-Horakhty and Horus, Dunn (2011). Set I temple exhibits some of the most exquisite relief work in the whole Nile Valley, giving superb evidence of the inherited sacred craftsmanship, executed in such a wonderful display, Kamil (1976). The temple was completed by Set I's son, Ramses II. 6

Decorated limestone makes up the first pylon. Two open courtyards suggestive of a roofed colonnade leads to a portico with three entrances. On the southern side of the first courtyard is a small temple palace. Two entrances and a middle pillared hall incorporates flight of steps up to a window of appearances, Akshar (2010). It is possible that it was here that the living image of the god Amun, the Pharaoh, would show is himself in front of the fortunate ones. The following hypostyle hall remains and the slabs in the roof exhibit wonderful flying vultures, the winged sun-disc, and Seti I names between two vertical rows of hieroglyphs, Kamil (1976). The hypostyle hall is followed by the inner sanctuary with the barque of Amun. Mortuary temple structures were based on contemporary divine cult temples. Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir-el-Bahri is possibly the most beautiful example of a mortuary temple presenting an axial sanctuary for the barque of Amun, the open court for worship of the sun god, a false door for presentation of offerings to the royal ka, and a place where to honour royal ancestors, Arnold (1994). The divine sphere so typical of cult temples, was strongly connected to both royal and funeral connections associated with funerary temples, Routledge (2001). The cult temple of Khonsu is a classic New Kingdom temple. The main part, including the sanctuary, was built by Ramses III, and completed by his son Ramses IV, who contributed with the near chapel and a small hypostyle hall, Kamil (1976). The significance of this temple is evidence of a transition from a long line of Pharaohs, to the priest of Amon, Hrihor, who seized the throne by the end of the 20th Dynasty, Kamil (1976). Design of cult and mortuary temples could vary, but the architectural elements representing the creation and primordial mound were similar, Snape (1996). Most temples were built along a rectilinear axis, Dunn (2011), and we will find 7

the temples close to water since the primeval mound itself rose from water in Edfu. In ancient times this was also the case with temples attached to the pyramids, since the much closer Nile provided the primordial water. According to Murray (1931), pyramids were burial places for early dynasties, yet not one single Pharaoh has ever been found inside a pyramid, even if many mummies were later hidden by priest in secret stashes. Instead rulers like Mentuhotep II and Senusret III from the 11th Dynasty, were buried outside pyramids and in rock cut tombs.

Fig. 3: The divine barque with the statue of Amun-Re is carried out of the temple of Edfu. Courtesy © Mark Millmore.

Noting is coincidence in the layout of ancient temples. They all follow a carefully laid out plan and structure. Where any Royal mortuary or cult temple act was enacted, a good example is Amun-Re at Karnak, the recurring label would be 'mansion of millions of years', Spencer (1984). Temples were certainly both theocratic, educational, financial and during the end of 20th Dynasty, also political hubs. Mortuary complexes could well be considered as insurance policies left by dead rulers, deliberately left to finance 8

not only the usually smaller mortuary chapels, but also the temples wide complexity of tasks. To sustain the royal ka was important in order to please the gods and guarantee mAat, but equally important was the continuous life of the temple. It was surely not a coincidence that mortuary chapels and temples were integrated as one working unit. It is logic to assume that the Pharaoh's rule of Egypt was deeply interconnected with the priests and their temples. The supreme god who's image was represented by a statue in the inner sanctuary of the temple, received almost obsessive sacred attention every day. Like any high ranking Egyptian official, the god would be washed, dressed, and fed with food and drink. The kings representatives, the high ranked priests, made sure that the liturgy and rituals were sacrosanct and followed a strict order. To not follow these rituals would have been considered heresy. Routledge, (2001), has found that performing rituals, nb-itr-xt, or performing rituals on behalf of the king, ir-xt-nswt , are often associated with temples. To uphold mAat, balance and order, was the cornerstone of a civilisation that could last for 3 000 years. Te living King was always the interface between the gods and the people of Egypt, highly associated with settings such as temple palaces, coronation duties, Heb Sed festivals and his divine appearances, Grundlach (2009). The dead King would still continue to be active in mortuary and divine cult temples. But the king was also expected to preserve memories of precursors by raising foundations and monuments in their honour, Routledge, (2001). As a reward the kings legitimacy for ruler ship could be reinforced by claiming affiliation and guidelines of good behaviour from royal predecessors, Routledge (2001). Routledge, (2001), has shown that the empowered spirit in afterlife was dependent on a successful transition from death. This was achieved by the 9

rituals being able to turn the deceased into an empowered spirit, that the rituals could protect the tomb and its contents, and finally that attention was given to purity, Routledge (2001). Ancient Egyptian texts often speaks about how rules and their performance are significant to ritual, Routledge (2001). These rituals were grounded in traditions, and the ancient Egyptian worldview finally gave a special place for rituals through sacred symbolism, Routledge (2001). This symbolism is evident through tomb- and temple art, possibly representing different dimensions of both mundane and sacred understanding not yet explored. By performing both mortuary and temple rituals according to strict texts and traditions, the beneficiary would hope for support and protection not only from the dead, but also from the supreme gods. These ritualistic actions and beliefs are highly reflected in temple and tomb art throughout the Egyptian civilisation. During the 18th dynasty Osirian and solar elements, had been incorporated into a complex where Osiris had more or less been united with Amun-Re, and the king's control was now reaching for the netherworld, Spencer (1982). The king's successor had to perform rituals both at the former king's mortuary temple, and at divine cult temples like Karnak, to safeguard the renewal of the solar cycle. From the "first occasion" to the last breath of the ancient Egyptian civilisation, mortuary and cult temples were strict organised institutions. From the beginning mortuary or funerary complexes were independent an located outside temples. When the mastaba became the pyramid, temples merged with funerary rituals. A transition emerged from earlier concepts of astronomical alignments into ideas about the sun-god Re. By the time of the New Kingdom, mortuary and temple complexes were integrated institutions praising the state god Amun-Re but also a wide range of other gods. 10

Splendid cult temples like the temple of Khonsu at Karnak, and Set I's temple at Abydos were built to honour the gods. The outstanding mortuary temple built by Queen Hatshepsut is a wonderful example of how the dead could continue to live among the living. The king was the supreme overseer, and his representatives, the priests, became a powerful theological, educational, financial and religious hub throughout the ancient Egyptian history. Financial and monumental investments in afterlife, was a truly a deed from birth to death. To not prepare for afterlife would have been considered foolish and unwise in a society so closely linked to their dead. Carefully executed rituals would safeguard the deceased transition into afterlife, and empower the royal kA to continue to provide for his people. Mortuary and temple rituals were different, yet they were perhaps provided by the same priests. During the New Kingdom, cult temple complexes had merged with mortuary temples, under the living god, the Pharaoh. In essence it was not solely the objective of the temple that decided it's function, it was instead the rituals on behalf of the king, ir-xt-nswt. As such mortuary and cult temple rituals were unified by the same master, the living god, the Pharaoh. Finally mAat would prevail.

11

1. Snape, S, (1996). Egyptian Temples, p 8 Buckinghamshire Publications. 2. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, p 368. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 3. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, p 209. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001. 4. Arnold, Dotothea (1999). When the Pyramids were Built: Egyptian Art of the Old Kingdom. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 5. Bard, Kathryn. (2000). The Emergence of The Egyptian State (c.3200-2686 BC), Shaw (Ed.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Vol. 1st), p 82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6. Bard, Kathryn. (2000). The Emergence of The Egyptian State (c.3200-2686 BC), Shaw (Ed.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Vol. 1st), p 83. Oxford: Oxford University Press 7. Wikipedia, (2015). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba [Accessed 13 April, 2015]. 8. Bard, Kathryn. (2000). The Emergence of The Egyptian State (c.3200-2686 BC), Shaw (Ed.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Vol. 1st), p 83. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9. Malek, Jaromir. (2000). The Old Kingdom (c.2686-2160 BC), Shaw (Ed.), Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Vol. 1st), p 93. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

12

10. Snape, S, (2011). Ancient Egyptian tombs: The culture of Life and Death, p 184. Blackwell Publishing. 11. Kamil, J, (1976). Luxor A Guide to Ancient Thebes, p 73. Second Edition, Longman Group Ltd, New York. 12. Manley, B, (1996). The Penguin Historical Atlas of ancient Egypt, p 78. London, Penguin Books. 13. Bell, L, (1997) The New Kingdom 'Divine' Temple: 'The Example of Luxor' Schafer et al, eds., 'Temples of ancient Egypt', p 135. New York, Cornell University Press. 14. Ullman, Martina, (2007). Thebes: Origins of a Ritual Landscape, in Dorman, Peter, Ancient Thebes. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilisation, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. B et Bryan, eds., Sacred Space and Sacred Function, 15. Wilkinson, R, (2000). The complete temples of ancient Egypt, p 154. Thames & Hudson Ltd. 16. Murray, M, (1931). Egyptian Temples, p 2 London Sampson Low, Marston and Co., Ltd. 17. Wilkinson, R, (2000). The complete temples of ancient Egypt, p 25. Thames & Hudson Ltd. 18. Dunn, Jimmy, (1996-2013). Egypt: The Temple of Seti I and the Osireion at Abydos. http:// www.touregypt.net/featurestories/setiabydos.htm [Accessed 12 April, 2015]. 19. Kamil, J, (1976). Luxor A Guide to Ancient Thebes, p 73. Second Edition, Longman Group Ltd, New York. 13

20. Akshar, J, (2010). Understanding the Difference Between Cult and Mortuary Temples. http://www.flatsinluxor.co.uk/egyptology-understandingthe-difference-between-cult-and-mortuary-temples/ [Accessed 11 April, 2015]. 21. Arnold, D, (1994). Encyclopedia of Ancietn Egyptian Architecture, p104. Princeton University Press. 22. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, p 175. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 23. Kamil, J, (1976). Luxor A Guide to Ancient Thebes, p 63. Second Edition, Longman Group Ltd, New York. 24. Kamil, J, (1976). Luxor A Guide to Ancient Thebes, p 64. Second Edition, Longman Group Ltd, New York. 25. Snape, S, (1996). Egyptian Temples, p 8 Buckinghamshire Publications. 24. Dunn, Jimmy, (2011). Egypt: The Location and Orientation of Ancient Egyptian Temples. http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/locationandorientation.htm [Accessed 11 April, 2015]. 26. Murray, M, (1931). Egyptian Temples, p 5 London Sampson Low, Marston and Co., Ltd. 27. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, p 124. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 28. Spencer, A.J., (1984). The Egyptian Temple:A Lexicographical Study, p 23, p 55. Kegan Paul International PLC.

14

29. Grundlach, R, (2009), Horus in the Palace, p 67, in Grundlach, R and Taylor, J, eds. Egyptian Royal Residences, 4th Symposium on Egyptian Royal Ideology. Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag. 30. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, p 199. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 31. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, p 199. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 32. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, pp 109-110. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 33. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, pp 109-110. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 34. Spencer, A.J., (1982). Death in Ancient Egypt, p 152. Penguin Books, England. 35. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, pp 109-110. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001 36. Routledge, C.D., (2001). Ancient Egyptian Ritual Practice, pp 109-110. PhD Thesis, Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations , University of Toronto. Copyright by Carolyn Diane Routledge, 2001

15