\"Textile Cultures of Syria: Palmyra, Mamlukes, Beduins\"

e?E*

esBetuatr#s

*fl

r?m

FaE &3 aaelu arad *duis?s il€tlR

t" Eg Fi* gEE

till

of

?ru?{4{}&EiCTt{hhj

communication. This lasted

The dry deserts of Sy,ria have preserved textiles. They

theYen-hsi period during the Emperor Huan-ti's

the ninth year

been an extensive East-West trade that is known

reign 1766 AD) vtben rhe king afTh-tiin, An-tun fMarcus Aurelius Antoninus] sent an embassy

from Classical literature. Roman authors noted with

uhofrom thefrontier ofJih-nan lAnrarr'] ffired

are no more

than scraps representing what must have

horror how the women of Rome spent vast sums

ioory, rhinoceros horns and tartoise shell. From

on imported silks and other costly textiles. Perhaps

that time dates the dired intercourse vtith this

less

well known, Chinese texts also make it clear

country." (Hau-han-shu, chapter 88; partly

that textiles were also of interest to the East as well: "The country ofTh-ts'in fSyria] zs ako called Li-chien [Li-kin, Re-kam, Petraf and, as being situated on the TDestern ?art of the sea, Hai-hsi-kuo

written during the 5th century al and embracing the period 25 to 220 to). The passage above clearly considers textiles along with precious substances such as gold, silver,

fcountry ofthe western part ofthe sea]. Irs territory amounts to seoeral thousand li; it

and gems. This clearly reflects the Chinese desire

contains ooerfour hundred cities, and ofdependent

motifs, if not some of the fabrics themselves, are

states there are several times ten... The czuntry

found in textiles recovered from Western China. Yet it is clear from the passage that the Parthians (a

for trade, and may explain why some Western

contains much gold, silt-,er and rare precious s

tones,... c orak, am b e6 gl as s,...

go

ld- e rnbroi

dere

d

dynasty based in Iran and Iraq from 350 BC-250 AD)

rugs and thin silk cloth of oarious colours. They

did not encourage direct commerce between Syria

make gold-coloured cloth and asbestos cloth. They

and China. They intended to remain in control

furtber

haoe

usater sheep';

fne it

cloth,'also called'doron of the

is madefrom the cocoons of

silk-usorms... Tbey

India,

the

are honest

proft

trffic

by sea

utild

tuith Parthia and

of uhich trade is ten-fold. They

in their transactions, and there are no

double prices... Their kings aktsays desired to send eru.bassies

to Cbina, but the Parthians ztsished to

carry on trade usith them in

Chinese silks, and

it is for this reason tbat they

vsere cut

offrom

of

the trade at least as far as Syria.

In

a

similar way Syrians were critical in

bringing Asian goods further West. There are written accounts ofSyrian trading colonies in Egypt and Rome. There is even a Palmyrene funerary stele in Britain (in the Arbeia Roman Fort Museum), made to commemorate the native born

wife of a Syrian merchant. It is perhaps only an indication of a network that has left few documents.

ORIENTAL CARPtrT &TEXTILE STUDIES VII i:ii-. i

Funerary stele in

of

of tbe Museum

front

s .--. 'q -::

Palmlra. This large example is of

typial Palnyreneform.

The richllt dressed reclining male is accomfanied by his

wife and children

seated

There is debate as to scene re?resents Is

ubat this

it

a happy

occasion or is the banquet a

in

more sombre one

his

hanour? He is dressed in is nou

in

knoun

trousers

ul:ih uith

ds

uith

uhat

Eastern stlle

a long tunic,

is rotalll' out of keeping

the uestern Raman toga

traditian Thefabris

used to

make his clothing are aery

clothing, linen mattresses, and pillows. Perhaps an interesting question to ask at this stage is hypo-

fainted, uhat remains today

No mention is made of what the merchant traded, though it is likely that textiles formed a part of his business. Sadly, the wet climate of Britain is not

is rather stark.

ideally suited to preserving fabrics.

evidence would there be

i i:; ... Detail of textilx

the textiles found in Palmyra are not

detailed. Although tbe

srulpture uould have been

At the outset it fram Figure 1. Roundel.s are a mo

fatourite

tif., andf

ora

locally made.

in

depictions in other more durable arts.

Syria's wealth.

This observation is supported by

Many

cotton cloths from India,

{tlte

textiles depited

from the texts attest to their importance in antiquity? This question is far from academic, as textiles from aside

many civilizations are only accessible through

what survives of their material culture. Scraps of as

well

as substantial

-

to

Texts are of course little help in reconstructing aspects of material culture as they rarely go

into

fragments of Chinese silks, are also found in Syrian

descriptive detail, and ifthey do, the descriptions

tombs. Yet the exact trade route involved is unclear.

are usually obscure.

an artistic rcnaention that

Perhaps somewhat strangely, there is no evidence

gorerned hou clothing should

that the Romans controlled the East-West trade

from the time the goods left Parthian control.

life are the least likely to be accurately recorded. History is largely concerned with battles and royal genealogy, and leaves the activities of the majority

Evidence of Roman supervision and organization

in times of peace unrecorded. Yet wealth and

This stands in sharp contrast to the Roman obsession with roads and trade in Europe.

prosperity is not usually based on dramatic events, but trade. There is perhaps no better example of a

the sculphres laok alike.

Does this suggest

be

there uas

fortra1,ed, or that tbere

of

uas a limited number

fabrit

a sheet

are lacking.

designs?

i-';il )

Funerary stele

in

the

could

plal

indigenous power structures in the Near East. Syria in particular had a number ofstrong dynasts

hate seleral

thk

as?ects

that would have been used in Italy

belond, uhith here rculd

remote parts of the Roman Empire, including areas

represent the afterlife. The

as

for

depition

uinding

sheet

Thi kind of

is notfram the Wat,

and na doubt relates ta dee?-

lra ilivities. Without textual evidenrc it

s e

ate

d E a s tern

is

almost impossible to be rcrtain

uhat this

Ifone Syria then

has to see one archaeological site

it

in

should be Palmyra. While it is

of the city, it is probably best simply to appreciate Palmyra as a unified culture. If what remains is

Palmyra, one is then looking at some of the cloth

tbe bo$,.

rule, aspects of everyday

possible to suggest that there are Greek, Roman

The most oboious is that a

literal/1t as a

a

with hefty local support. After obtaining a snapshot of what existed in

curtain can shield uhat lies

clath could also be interlreted

As

city based on trade than Palmyra.

Perhaps this was an acknowledgement

many roles in sotiety, and sheet ma1,

of

uith

Palmlra

Museunt Fabrir

,i

a-11

-

The text makes clear that trade was a major factor

farms are a/so aer)) camman

in

E

I

is important to remember that

thetical. If the textiles were not preserved, what

as

well

as

in more

and Iranian influences in the art and architecture

Syrian author ofthe 4th century notes that Syrian

high degree of sophistication when considered on a world scale. Yet at the root oI Palmyrene prosperity is x rather ubiquitous concern. The water that supplies

linen was traded throughout the known wor1d.

the oasis made the site

This may have been no idle boast. Other texts make it clear that many grades of linen clothing existed, and in 4th century Rome some of the cheapest

traversing the desert. Silks coming from China and gold coming from Rome passed through

clothing were known by the name of "unbleached

wealthy taking tolls from the caravans. At the same time the city was famous for the date palm,

fN away as Britain. The Descriptio Totius Orbis (Description of the Whole World), written by a

Antiochenes." The Edict

scene represented.

301

on

Maximum Pries promulgated in

,ql by the Emperor Diocletian

types fabric made

a-lso

lists several

in Damascus, including wool

any gauge, the city reached a very

a

vital stop for those

this hub, and the inhabitants ofthe city grew

which explains the name taken from Greek "Palmyra". In Arabic the name is Tadmor,which also suggests "date."

ICOC X TEXTILE CULTURtrS OF SYRIA

'.

:.'

3

under Roman jurisdiction, and some embodl,

Detail

of

tfu nonu

llt;

Roman conceptions of art, but thev should not simp11, be considered as Roman. The "Roman"

ruental arth, Pahn1,7n

interest in ancient historl-, the Romat-rs r'r.rested

control ofthe Nlediterranern from the

designation is thereforc an oversimplification,

marks the spot rhare t/te

As is familiar to anl.one rvith cven a prssing sLICCessors

of Alexander. After hard fighting ther. deposed the

from the beginning the Roman Empire rvas

kings rvho succeeded him and replaced them lvith

universal one i:iir!; 1 :

governors from Rome. The underlying culture,

L^eigt sha?ed

as

a

co/artnaded street

There r'vere Roman Emperors from many

asphalt

tion

expansion, many regions rvith their o',vn distinctive

Rome and Svria is far deeper than any single

tha

characteristics were assimilated There are thcrefore

episode or event, as

extensive Rorr.ran period remains from manv areas

modern perception of the vlst gr-rlf benveen East

outside of thc Italian herrtland. These r'vere made

and West did not exist in ar.rtiquitv'. Syrir played

a

veneer of Greek, did not change

under their rulc.

During the course of the Romirn E,mpire's

it

- uhih

i.t

interru2tt:tl h1 the nrodern

diflerent lineages, and it is not surprising that Syria, lvith an rncient culture and vast wealth, also contributed leaders. The relationship benveen

Semitic.,vith

nnililnent

spans the generations.

The

road

diret

uos erectei by Septinius Sererus (193 211

I'he

trt),

one oJ

Slriot Rontan Ernferors de

toration shout

tinti/aritie-t a

changes

The rith/y detorutel urch

uith

decordtion

rome

the stu/ptcd

brics, hut

difiirs.lrom thefabrit themst/tes

-

l|/oruen in Pu/ruyt'a

coulrl be

t'l

Jiom the

ueattr:,

rcli(i

ds is clear

dndJront

texti/e .f.rds in tontbs. Thi.t

.-

girl (on a rtele in thc Palmlra Musetrm), holding a sVind/e

!

tnd uool,

perhap-r denLon-

ttt'ntes her iafrt?etence O/der

uoruen uere

o;fte

tt sintilar/y

porn'dyed u-ith the tools oJ'

/heir trade Cledr\ this craJi uas central lo thair status. i:l

It

is unlike/1 thal elite'aomen

dttua/\

u-a-.e, rather the

sf in d I a t efre.t

e

n le

d

m.ds te

ry

ot,er the bou sebo ld.,4ris ta-

crdtit Romon /ddies uere but ied

olso

uitb goltlen t?;ndlcs

ORIENTAL CARPET &TEXTILE STUDIES VII Rome particularly sensitive on its eastern frontier.

With the capture and execution of the Roman Emperor Valerian by Sasanian forces (253-260), Odainat began his strike into lraq, reaching as far as

the Sasanian capital in Ctesiphon

was the hero of the day,

h266.He

but did not live long to

savour victory, as he was murdered, perhaps by his wife, in 267/S.Zetobia ruled through her son. She

expanded Palmyrene control into Anatolia and

Egypt, and she had coins struck with her son assuming the title of 'Augustus". Considering that several Roman Emperors did have Syrian origins,

this was indeed an assumption

-

not given by the Roman Senate

title was but it was not

as the

-

completely unjustified.

The Roman response to the rearrangement of the balance of power was swift, and Aurelian marched through Anatolia and took Emesa (Homs) tn 272. Zenobia was soon caught trying to escape

to the Sasanians, and she surrendered the city to the Romans. Palmyra pledged adherence to Rome, but shortly after the majority of troops left in the spring of 273, the Roman garrison was massacred and the city again made a bid for independence.

This time the Emperor allowed the city to be completely destroyed. The inhabitants were slaughtered, and after this date Palmyra was little more than a military camp. The main trade route

with the West then changed to deliberate Roman policy

-

-

almost certainly due

and Palmyra never

The relatively neglected ruin in the middle of the desert was preserved for archaeology. recovered.

i !{) 4

Chinre textilefag-

significant role in the history of Rome in particular

As the texts and sculptures suggest, textiles did

ment in the Palmya Museum

and the West in general. Rome also faced some

Cbinese textiles uere shipped

stark challenges for world supremacy from the

play a very important role in the society. They were

thaugh Palm1ru and on to

perhaps the most obvious marker of social class.

Rome, but there is no etidenrc

East. Perhaps the best example is Qreen Zenobia. Her reign is best known for war, but the basis of

While women would often

Chinesefabris in Palmy

her wealth, enough to challenge Rome, was trade.

elaborate jewellery, men would have 1itt1e

Textiles played a leading ro1e.

clothing to mark their status. As status related

{

rene art, suggesting that artists

uere

un

c

omfar tab le repre s ent-

ing nan-natite designs

)t

i:i:'i

Rahed detoration on

a textile in Palml,ra Museum.

This textile is suggestite oftbe those represented on the reliefs,

although some hate eten mare elaborile designs Blue and

purple uere re.rerudfor the elite in tlte ancient Mediter-

Zenobia's husband, Odenanthus, pursued

A

a

directly to legal rights, the desire for showy clothes may almost be considered a secondary concern. Perhaps most interestingly, the cloths represented on the effigies and those recovered from the tombs

city for themselves. After a series of wars with the Parthians, Palmyra was raised to the status of a

differed substantially. There are many clear imports

from China

FIG o.

Clearly a major imperus for importing fabrics

colony in 272 rnder Emperor Caracalla. Because the Emperor's mother was a daughter of the high

was colour. Linen, known to be a gpically Syrian

priest of Emesa (modern Homs) this could be seen as again protecting Palmyra from Parthian designs.

brocades

Records

from256/7 oudine the rise of Septimius

aristordcy. Rol,al blue uas

of Roman control in the face of the new threat

obtainedfom murex, a mar-

from Iran under the Sasanian dynasty (250-650

ine mollusc. Similar sbades

all the Roman troops in the region were put under

arefound on Chinese textiles

his command. The Sasanians were far more effective

12

but their

more of a warning to the Parthians not to seize the

restrided royal purVle to the

made to suit Wstern tastes

with

policy of friendship with Rome. was installed in Palmyra since about 150, but it was

Roman garrison

Odainat from his appointment as Consul and Governor of Syia Phoenice.With the breakdown

ranean. Rome had laws tbat

be portrayed

al),

than the Parthians against Rome, which made

fabric, does not take dye well. No elaborate

-

as on some

ofthe effigies

recovered. There are a few textiles surface design FrG

z.

-

have been

that have

a

There is still debate about the

origin of the dyed woo1, but it is likely that purple wool was from the Mediterranean coast. Finally, there are striped fabrics that suggest how some of the grave stele could have been painted FIG

With

8.

the demise of Zenobia and Rome's

retribution, including the change in the East-West

ICOC X TEXTILE CULTURES OF SYRIA trade route, the high culture of Palmvra efTectively ended.

This leaves

a

large gap in the archaeological

record, but does not suggest that no weaving ofan1,

kind was taking place in the area. There continued to be nomads who tended animals that could exploit the harsh terrain. Nomads

laid the foundations for Palmyra, yet according to what one sees of the material culture of the city, they were invisible during its heyday. Qrite clearlv Palmyrene society valued sedentary hxuries such as sculpture, yet the nomads were part of the culture. Someone had to transport goods by camel. Not surprisingly, there are reliefs of camels laden with trade goods FIG e. One could argue that the language at this time would not likely be Arabic,

but no one can be sure what language the traders rvould have spoken. Even ifthey did not speak

-\rabic they were, on the basis of their material culture, close to the modern Beduin. 11-:a'.

llention

r

the word Beduinin the Near East, perhaps

in particular, and there will likelv be a variety of responses. Some - perhaps with romantic Sr.ria

notions

- value their

reputation

as

free ranging

nomads. Others look down on their "primitive" litesqvle. Just about everyone is familiar with what :hev weave, but their woven goods are not usually

.old in the West. They have not been .r-stematically collected until recentlv.

The word is derived from the Arabic word

with

where they can still be found. The Ethnographic

: it.. .:

has nothing to

Museum in Palmyra is one of few museums that

uith

preserve the material culture of these people. Most

Palmlra Museum This

:'-t't:'adin, meaning nomads, and is associated

:re camel nomads of the desert.

jr

It

rvith their tribe (qabila). Although some citv use the term to refer to villagers, the

::ople may

.:ter normally use it only for

nomads who raise

:.n-iels. These camel riders have status because they .

rmed the backbone of the military, though this is

,.. of a concern in modern times.

Texti/efrngment

caloured bands

of the materials date within the last fifty years.

textik

During this time many Beduin men have moved to the cities for work. They can leave their families

lotalj It

behind for as much as half

a

year at a time. While

is

lrobably

in

the

made

also hints

that'uhile

manlt of the scu/ptures are no.u uhite, thel may

bau

the children often tend animals, Beduin women

muth detail fom pain ting

continue to weave to supplement their income.

uhicb has nou perisbed.

Though today much weaving that is sold as Beduin is in fact woven in villages and is designed

i' j i., 'i

,:rrusing. The leaders may be settled in an oasis ,:.i or.vn agricultural properry. The elite may own

to appeal to tourists, weaving in traditional patterns

trade goodsfrom a stele

stil1 takes place. Beduin weavings can be character-

Palmyra Museum While

-

izedby their bright bold colours. Sadly now the majority are woven with synthetic dyes, and are

untlear uhat is in many

Tending sheep and goats does not make one

. Beduin. Many Beduin tribes have sedentary ::rnches, and

tribal loyalties may be complex and

:ep and goats, which need a regular source of

..:er in order to survive. For those not

related to

.:-c Beduin, there was usually a exchange of money

: :he promise of securiqr The nomads in turn

, uld buy needed foods such as dates and grain, - J people in the town could hire the nomads to

usua111,

,4 ctmel laden

Designs are often simple and geometric, which

relatiuly light, and not

of two easy to transport beams of wood or metal

subject to breakage

that can be staked into the ground. The warp

is

scenes

.-..rht be reflected in distant antiquity in Palmyra.

continuously wrapped around the beams, and

a

rare in reliefs

stick holding the string heddles completes the loom. While the length of the loom can vary

'-:

:rq. Palmyra is one of the few places in Svria

of

/odd. Thel uere taluable,

is in keeping with their looms, which often consist

=::in had settled, though there remain numbers . .:em clinging to tradition in areas marginal for

the

it i:

fabrics uere part of d routine

avoided by collectors.

Br. the end of the 20th centurv most of the

uith in

the bundles, almost certainll

.