Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CSIRO Wildlife & Ecology Resource Futures Program Population-Development-Environment Project GPO Box 284 CANBERRA ACT 2601
Ph: +61 - 2 - 6242 1600 Fax: +61 - 2 - 6242 1555 Email:
[email protected] Internet: http://www.dwe.csiro.au/research/futures
Working Document 98/12: Canberra’s Ecological Footprint (Part 2) © 1998
Disclaimer You accept all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using any information or material in this paper. To the maximum permitted by law, CSIRO excludes all liability to any person arising directly or indirectly from using the information in this paper.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
PART THREE
ESTIMATING CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT This part of the report includes the following chapters: 5. FOOD Estimating the ecological footprint for food in Canberra. 6. HOUSING Estimating the ecological footprint for housing in Canberra. 7. TRANSPORT Estimating the ecological footprint for transport in Canberra. 8. CONSUMER GOODS Estimating the ecological footprint for consumer goods in Canberra. 9. SERVICES Estimating the ecological footprint for services in Canberra. 10. TOTAL
=
Brings together the estimations for each of the consumption categories to give a total average ecological footprint for Canberra and examines the range of consumption levels around the average.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
5. FOOD Like most cities, Canberra’s food comes from somewhere else. Do we know where our food comes from, how it is produced and how much water, energy and land area is needed to produce it? We use cropland for fruits and vegetables, pasture and grazing land for meat products, forests to produce paper for packaging our food. We use considerable amounts of energy to produce our food - for the operation of farm machinery, production of fertilisers and pesticides; and food transportation. Using the current processes of producing food we also degrade land - eg, through soil erosion and salinisation.
The Ecological Footprint for Food in the ACT is 1.39 ha or 18.1 house blocks per person. The following land types make up the ecological footprint for food: 5.1 The Ecological Footprint Land Types used for Food in the ACT CONSUMED The consumed land lost through land degradation (eg. salinity and soil erosion) as a result of unsustainable agricultural practices. CROP
GRAZING
The crop land used to produce food crops including cereals and fruit and vegetables.
The grazing land used to produce meat and dairy products.
FOREST
The forest land used to produce paper and cardboard for food packaging.
ENERGY
The energy land used for fuel, fertilisers, and pesticides in the food sector.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Food Consumption in Canberra How can we work out the ecological footprint of the food consumed by the average Canberran? We could take a simplistic view and calculate that for 1993/94, the agricultural land (469.1 million hectares) divided by Australia’s population (16.5 million) would give the per person area consumed by providing food for the population (28.4 ha per person). However, Australian agricultural production exceeds consumption dramatically with farm products representing a significant share of exports.1 In ecological footprint terms, this means that other countries have part of their ecological footprint within Australia, as do we in turn for the goods and services we import. To estimate the amount of each type of food consumed in Canberra, we need to start with the Australian average of food consumption per person2 as shown in the table below.
5.2 Average Food Consumption (kg per person), Australia, 1993/94 160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
Nuts
Eggs
Seafood
Oils/Fats
Poultry
Sugars
Meats
Grains
Dairy
Fruits
Vegetables
0
Source: ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0
Food consumption differs from place to place, according to the customs and food preferences of shoppers as well as the availability of fresh local produce in season. One way to estimate the amount of food consumed in each category in different places is by looking at the expenditure on food groups in the Household Expenditure Survey.3 The figure below compares Canberra’s food expenditure with the national average.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
At first glance, Canberra’s average food consumption, based on expenditure, appears to be “healthier” that the national diet. We buy 9% less meat, 4% more poultry, 10% more fruit, 33% more nuts and 8% less sugar. However, we spend 30% more than the national average on take away food and restaurant dining, which brings our overall food spending to about the same as the national average. In this study we have assumed that the average Australian food consumption figures also apply to consumption in Canberra. 5.3 Average Expenditure on Food, Australia and Canberra 1993/94
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Australia ACT
Source: ABS (1995) Cat No 6535.0
5.4 Annual Expenditure (per person) on Takeaway and Restaurant Food, Canberra and Australia, 1993/94
Australian expenditure $583.07
Canberra expenditure $755.70
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CONSUMED LAND
Land consumed for food includes land degraded as a result of unsustainable farming and land used for landfill for food waste. Food wastes to landfill are included in Chapter 8, while land degraded during food production is included below.
LAND DEGRADATION An ABS agricultural survey in 1993 (see chapter 3) found that farmers estimate4 about 16,381,000 ha of agricultural land has been degraded through: • • • • •
Wind and water erosion; Dryland and irrigation related salinity; Acidity; Compaction; Invasion by weeds and feral animals.
This is around one hectare per Australian, however this degradation has occurred over time. Agricultural use of the land has expanded considerably during the past 50 years, if we apportion the degradation over this period, then the ecological footprint can be estimated as shown in the table below. 5.5 The Ecological Footprint for Land Degraded for Food, Canberra, 1993/94 Ecological Footprint Ecological Footprint Ecological Footprint Australia (ha) Canberra (ha) per person (ha) 327,620 5,565 0.019
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CROP LAND
Crop land includes all the land used to produce grains, fruit and vegetables for human food.
GRAINS
5.6 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Grains, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Wheat flour
Total Australian consumption
Australian consumption per person (a)
Yield (b)
Ecological footprint per person
tonnes
kg
kg/ha
ha
1,383,690
77.9
1,929
0.0404
Oatmeal (breakfast food)
18,361
1.0
1,674
0.0006
Rice
98,686
5.6
8,363
0.0007
141,859
8.0
2,907
0.0028
1,642,596
92.5
n.a.
0.0444
Other grains (breakfast food) Total
Sources: (a) ABS5 (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements6, 1996 and ABS7 (1995) Cat No 7113.0
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
FRUIT
5.7 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Fruit, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Total Australian consumption
Australian consumption per person
Yield
Ecological footprint per person
tonnes
kg
kg/ha
ha
Oranges
635,292
35.8
17,928
0.0020
Other citrus
133,399
7.5
10,963
0.0007
Apples
313,212
17.6
12,439
0.0014
Apricots
16,518
0.9
5,621
0.0002
Bananas
227,764
12.8
14,941
0.0009
Grapes
36,943
21.0
12,312
0.0017
Melons
156,951
8.8
24,000
0.0004
Peaches
34,663
2.0
6,566
0.0003
Pears
81,116
4.6
13,032
0.0004
Pineapples
98,548
5.6
3,000
0.0018
Plums and Prunes
29,916
1.7
8,654
0.0002
Jams and Conserves
34,782
2.0
6,000
0.0003
Dried vine fruit (sultanas, etc)
37,695
2.1
14,100
0.0001
Dried tree fruit (apricots, etc)
16,475
1.0
3,000
0.0003
125,419
7.0
12,439
0.0006
1,978,693
130.4
n.a.
0.0113
Processed fruit (apples, etc) Total
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
VEGETABLES 5.8 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Vegetables, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Total Australian consumption
Potatoes Beetroot Carrots Onions Parsnips Sweet potatoes Turnips and swedes Tomatoes Beans (green) Cabbages & other leafy gr Celery Lettuce Peas Cauliflower Cucumber Marrows,squash, zucchini Pumpkins Sweet corn Total
Australian consumption per person (a)
tonnes 1,129,770 26,691 160,240 160,297 5,945 8,277 6,760 398,646 45,298 84,927 36,431 98,102 101,869 59,927 16,912 19,955 108,817 79,766 2548630
kg 63.6 1.5 9.0 9.0 0.3 0.5 0.4 22.5 2.6 4.8 2.1 5.5 5.7 3.4 1.0 1.1 6.1 4.5 143.6
Yield (b) kg/ha 21,165 32,098 24,689 23,235 20,351 14,302 8,940 42,252 2,821 29,900 39,652 15,590 4,467 23,830 7,936 6,000 14,602 14,563 n.a.
Ecological footprint per person ha 0.0030 0.0000 0.0004 0.0004 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0009 0.0002 0.0001 0.0004 0.0013 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0004 0.0003 0.0084
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
5. 9 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Other Foods, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item Total Australian Yield Ecological footprint Australian consumption (b) per person consumption per person (a) Nuts- Peanuts - Tree Nuts Margarine Sugars - Cane Sugar - Honey Total
tonnes 31,365 79,863 139,465 668,351 13,051 932,095
kg 1.8 4.5 7.9 37.6 0.7 52.5
kg/ha 1,811 1,811 366 11,200 ? n.a.
ha 0.0010 0.0025 0.0216 0.0034 ? 0.0285
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
BEVERAGES 5.10 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Beverages, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Total Australian consumption
- Tea - Coffee - Soft Drinks (l) - Beer (l) - Wine (l) - Spirits(l) Total
Australian consumption per person
Yield
Ecological footprint per person
kg
kg/ha ? ? ? ? 7,552 ? n.a.
ha ? ? ? ? 0.0025 ? 0.0025
tonnes 18,493 40,478 1,856,487 1,740,462 330,462 24,284 n.a.
1.0 2.3 104.5 98.0 18.6 1.4 n.a.
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
TOTAL CROP FOODS 5.11 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Crop Lands Used for Food, Canberra, 1993/94 Food Type Grains Fruit Vegetables Other food crops Beverages Total
Ecological footprint Canberra (ha) 13,320 3,390 2,520 8,550 750 28,530
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Ecological footprint per person (ha) 0.0444 0.0113 0.0084 0.0285 0.0025 0.0951
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
GRAZING LAND
Grazing land includes land used to produce meat, poultry, eggs and dairy products.
MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS 5.12 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Meat and Meat Products, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Total Australian Yield (b) Australian consumption consumption per person (a) tonnes kg kg/ha Beef 675,706 36.4 158 Veal 2,894 1.6 16 Lamb 206,342 11.6 77 Mutton 149,863 8.4 43 Pig meat (bacon, ham, pork) 343,732 19.4 260 Offal and other meat products 40,533 2.3 300 Total 1,419,070 79.7 n.a.
Ecological footprint per person ha 0.2309 0.1026 0.1513 0.1958 0.0746 0.0077 0.7630
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
POULTRY AND EGGS 5.13 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Poultry and Eggs, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Total Australian consumption
Poultry Eggs (no) Total
Australian Yield (b) Ecological footprint consumption per person per person (a) tonnes kg kg/ha ha 501,642 28.3 2,709 0.0104 2,470,104 139.0 15,228 0.0091 n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.0195
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
DAIRY PRODUCTS
5.14 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Dairy Products, Canberra, 1993/94 Food item
Total Australian Yield (b) Australian consumption consumption per person (a) tonnes kg kg/ha - Whole Milk (litres) 1,810,187,000 102.0 12,069 - Cond/Evap/Conc Milk 83,952 4.7 6,035 - Powdered Milk 56,297 3.1 1,207 - Infants and Invalids Food 19,679 1.1 500 - Cheese 165,820 9.3 1,516 - Butter 52,973 3.0 602 Total n.a. n.a. n.a.
Ecological footprint per person ha 0.0085 0.0008 0.0026 0.0022 0.0061 0.0050 0.0251
Sources: (a) ABS (1997) Cat No 4306.0; (b) Clements, 1996 and ABS (1995) Cat No 7113.0
TOTAL GRAZING LAND FOODS
5.15 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Grazing Lands, Canberra, 1993/94 Food Type Meat and Meat Products Poultry and Eggs Dairy Products Total
Ecological footprint Canberra (ha) 228,900 5,850 242,280 477,030
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Ecological footprint per person (ha) 0.7630 0.0195 0.0251 0.8076
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
FOREST LAND
The major use of forest land for food production is for packaging.
PACKAGING The Griffith University ecological footprint team calculated the forest footprint for food packaging8 to be 0.061 ha per person. This is based on: • Annual per person consumption of 65.8 kg of forest products for “packaging and industrial purposes”(in 1990/91); • An estimate that 54% of the above figure is for food packaging; • 3.498 m3 wood/tonne of paper. Updating the consumption figure to 75.2 kg per person for 1993/94 (see Table 3.32), and assuming that Canberra’s consumption is similar to the national average, the estimate for Canberra’s food packaging use of forest land is shown below.
5.16 The Ecological Footprint for Forest Land Used for Packaging, Canberra, 1993/94 Ecological Footprint Canberra (ha) 21,000
Ecological Footprint per person (ha) 0.070
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY LAND
Agricultural production requires energy, which historically (and currently in the less industrialised countries) was supplied by human and animal labour.
FOOD PRODUCTION Modern agriculture has dramatically improved yields while reducing human labour through using fertilisers, pesticides, and improved agricultural methods and crop strains. This has been achieved through the increasing use of oil in food production. Energy is used at every stage of the food system: • • • • • • •
production - farm machinery, irrigation systems, fertilisers, pesticides; processing - factory operation, equipment packaging; transport at all stages storage - packaging, preservatives; refrigeration retailing - shopping centres, packaging; preparation - cooking, household and restaurant appliances; waste collection and disposal.
Individual food consumption (measured by energy content) increased by more than 70% between 1967 and 1992, because of more energy intensive production and more wastage in processing.9 In the late 1970s, Green10 asked: How long can we go on eating oil?..... If you live in a developed country....every mouthful of food you eat - unless you gather wild berries by the roadside irrevocably consumes a finite amount of irreplaceable fossil fuel energy. Twenty years later Fleay11 asserted that “we can’t have our oil and eat it too” when national economies are faced with the choice of how to allocate diminishing oil supplies.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Measurements of energy used in agriculture tends to focus on the direct power needs used in farming. An estimated 62.3 Pj of energy was used by agriculture during 1993-94, most of this was automotive diesel oil (52.4 Pj) used for farm machinery such as tractors and harvesters, electricity (9.1 Pj) was the next largest source.12 Fertilisers and pesticides require energy to produce, transport and apply to farmland. The two most commonly used fertilisers are based on non-renewable resources - phosphates from limited stocks of phosphate rock and nitrogen fertilisers from petroleum feedstock. Many pesticides are manufactured from petroleum feedstock. The table below gives estimates for energy embodied in chemical inputs to farming.13,14 5. 17 Estimated Embodied Energy in Agricultural Chemicals, Australia, 1993/94 Farm Inputs
Application Area (a)
Quantity Used (a)
‘000 ha 20,529 14,880 3,117 813 39,339
Tonnes 3,000,000 2,380 690 1,618 3,004,688
Fertilisers Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Total
Embodied energy (b) Gj/tonne
Total Energy (b)
50 238 200 92 580
Gj 150,000,000 566,440 138,000 148,856 150,853,296
Sources: (a) ABS, 1996 p 33, 35 data varies - 1993/94 and 1991/92 (b) Green, 1978
A high proportion of farm inputs, including machinery, fertilisers and pesticides are imported, and have thus required energy to transport to Australia and then onto the farms. All these energy inputs have been assumed to be included into the calculations for the energy intensity data for food, as outlined in Chapter 4. The table below shows the annual expenditure, energy intensity, embodied energy and estimated per person ecological footprint for food in Canberra during 1993/94. 5. 18 Estimated Embodied Energy in Food, Australia, 1993/94 Food Type
Grains Meat Fish Eggs/dairy products Fruit/vegetables Processed Food Total
Annual Expenditure ($) 260.75 286.75 43.33 228.16 230.04 1357.65 2,406.68
Energy Intensity (Gj/$) 0.0183 0.0106 0.0106 0.0106 0.0184 0.0183 n.a.
Embodied Energy (Gj) 4.772 3.040 0.459 2.418 4.233 24.845 39.767
Source: Close (unpub)15 based on calculations by Common
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Ecological Footprint (ha) 0.048 0.030 0.005 0.024 0.042 0.248 0.397
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
TOTAL FOOD LAND
CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT FOR FOOD The estimated ecological footprint for food is shown in the table below. These figures are added to those for the other consumption categories to provide an estimate of the total ecological footprint in Chapter 10.
5.19 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Food (per person), Canberra, 1993/94
Fruit, veg, grain
Consumed Crop Land Land 0.095
Grazing Land
Animal products Total Food
Forest Land
0.808 0.019
0.095
0.808
82
0.070
Energy Land 0.214
Total Land
0.183
0.991
0.397
1.389
0.309
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
References and Notes 1. State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996) State of the Environment. Australia. CSIRO Publishing. Collingwood. Page. 2. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997) Apparent Consumption of Foodstuffs and Nutrients 1993/94 Australia. ABS Cat 4306.0. Canberra. 3. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1995) 1993/94 Household Expenditure Survey - Australia. Detailed Expenditure Items. ABS Cat 6535.0. Canberra 4. ABS Cat 4606.0. Pages 99-100 5. ABS (1997) Cat 4306.0 6. Clements, R (unpub) An Approximation of Canberra’s Ecological Footprint for Food and Forest Products. University of Canberra Research Report. 7. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1995) Agriculture 1993-94. ABS Cat 7113.0. Canberra. 8. Simpson R, Lowe I and Petroeschevsky A (1997) Draft Report - The Ecological Footprint of Australia, with a Focus on the South-East Queensland Region. Griffith University. Brisbane. 9. State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996) State of the Environment. Australia. CSIRO Publishing. Collingwood. Page 12. 10. Green MB (1978) Eating Oil: Energy Use in Food Production. Westview Press. Boulder, USA. 11. Fleay, BJ (1995) The Decline of the Age of Oil. Petrol Politics: Australia’s Road Ahead. Puto Press. Sydney. Page 74. 12. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996) Australian Agriculture and the Environment ABS Cat 4606.0. Canberra. Page 35. 13. ABS Cat 4606.0. Pages 33-35 14. Green (1978). 15. Close, A (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological Footprint - Energy. University of Canberra Research Report.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
16.
6. HOUSING This chapter makes estimates for the land covered by housing in Canberra, as well the area covered by private gardens, the forest area used to provide building materials and the energy used to build and operate our homes.
The Ecological Footprint for Housing in the ACT is 0.36 ha, or 4.7 house blocks per person. The following land types make up the ecological footprint for housing: 6.1 The Ecological Footprint Land Types used for Housing in the ACT CONSUMED
The land covered by housing, including houses, sheds and garages.
GARDEN
The land area covered by private gardens.
FOREST
The forest land used for producing construction materials for housing.
ENERGY
The energy used for the operation of the household lighting, cooking, space and water heating
The energy used for the construction, maintenance and disposal of houses.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CONSUMED LAND
Our housing covers land that cannot be used for other purposes (unless we grow plants or play sport on the roof) and so is called “consumed land” for the purposes of calculating the ecological footprint.
LAND CONSUMED BY HOUSING
The amount of land consumed by housing in the ACT is the land built over by houses and associated structures like sheds and garages. This area is calculated by multiplying the number of houses by the average area covered by each house. Dwellings in the ACT include separate houses, semi-detached, row or terrace houses, townhouses, flats or apartment, houses attached to shop, etc. Buildings may be single storey, multi- storey or split level.
Estimated Number of Dwellings in the ACT in 1993 The 1991 Census of Population and Housing recorded a total of 98,319 private dwellings in the ACT, comprising separate houses (79.1%); semi- detached row, terrace or townhouses (10.7%); flats and apartments (9.1%).1 An estimated 4,000 new dwellings per year were completed during the 2.5 years between the census and the end of 1993, giving a housing stock of about 108,000.2
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Estimated Size of Dwellings in the ACT in 1993 Statistics for privately built new houses in the ACT3 show that the average house area increased from 139m2 during 1970-71 to 192m2 during 1990-91. Older houses in Canberra are smaller, although many of these have been extended in recent years, and the 20% of housing which comprises flats, townhouses, etc are usually smaller, so an estimate of 157m2 has been made for the size of the average Canberra dwelling. However, this figure includes only the basic dwelling area, without garages, verandahs and storage sheds. When these structures are included,4 the built area covered by the average Canberra dwelling increases to about 207m2. 6.2 Area Covered by Houses and Associated Buildings Area (m3) 157 29 12 9 207
Building Type House Garage/carport Verandah/deck Garden/storage shed Average Total Area Source: Lukaszyk, (unpub).
Multiplying the number of dwellings by the average size, gives a total area of 2,236 ha. Assuming a Canberra population of 300,000, the per person ecological footprint for housing is estimated to be 74.52 m2 (0.007ha).
Housing Construction Wastes In 1993/94, builders spoil of 127,750 tonnes comprised about 31% of municipal wastes in Canberra. Based on the OECD estimates shown in Chapter 3 - Table 3.13, this amount of waste would require a land fill area of 1,845 ha for Canberra, which is 0.006 ha per person. 6.3 The Ecological Footprint for Land Consumed by Housing, Canberra, 1993/94 Type of Consumption Housing Wastes Total
Ecological footprint Canberra (ha) 2,236 1,845 4,081
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Ecological footprint per person (ha) 0.007 0.006 0.013
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
GARDEN LAND
Garden land is “reversibly built”, that is, land which is currently used for gardens but could be used for growing food, or forest, without major modification.
LAND USED FOR PRIVATE GARDENS
“Private gardens” are those which are associated with housing as distinct from public open land and recreational areas like parks and sporting fields. The average Canberra block size is 852.5 m2 for single houses and 322 m2 for each dwelling in flats/unit, etc.5 An “average” Canberra block size is estimated to be about 770 m2. The average block size less the average house size (207 m2) gives the average garden area, or the “reversibly built” area of consumed land, of 563 m2. The table below shows the total Canberra and per person ecological footprint for gardens.
6.4 Ecological Footprint for Garden Land, Canberra, 1993/94 No Dwellings 108,000
Av. Garden Area m2 563
Ecological Footprint Canberra (ha) 6,080
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Ecological Footprint per person (ha) 0.020 (202.68 m2 )
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
FOREST LAND
FOREST LAND USED FOR BUILDING MATERIALS
The amount of timber used in constructing an average 180 m2 brick veneer home with a timber floor is estimated6 to be about 21 m3 - or 17-18 m3 for houses with concrete slab floors. Around 5 m3 is used to construct a unit or flat.7 It is assumed that these estimates do not includes timber used for constructing sheds, garages, etc. In Canberra about 99% of housing is made of brick, with about 72% of houses built with concrete slab flooring. The table below shows an estimate of the amount of timber used for Canberra housing. 6.5 Estimated Amount of Timber Used in Housing, Canberra, 1993 Construction type House -timber floor House -concrete slab Flats/units/townhouses All
Timber used (m3 ) 21.0 17.5 5.0 n.a.
No of houses 24,192 62,208 21,600 108,000
Timber used (m3 ) 508,032 1,088,640 108,000 1,704,672
The forest land area needed to provide timber is calculated by estimating the mean annual increment (MAI) of timber harvested.8 An average MAI of 16m3/ha/yr is used, based on the respective MAIs of broadleaved and coniferous forests and on the assumption that for Canberra house construction the proportion of broadleaved to coniferous timber is about 25/75 (see Forests section in Chapter 3). The following table estimates the total Canberra and per person ecological footprint for forest land, assuming: • • • •
a mean annual increment 16m3/ha/yr for timber land use; an additional 20% of timber used for garages, sheds, decks, etc an estimated lifetime of 50 years for houses, an estimated additional 34% use of timber for repairs, maintenance, extensions; 6.6 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Forest Land, Canberra, 1993 Timber used over 50 years (m3) 2,741,113
Timber used per year (m3) 54,822
Ecological Footprint for Canberra (ha) 3,426
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Ecological Footprint per person (ha) 0.011
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY LAND
Estimating the energy land footprint involves calculating the amount of energy used for the operation, construction, maintenance and disposal of housing: • Operation energy includes the energy used for the day-to-day running of the household heating/cooling, lighting, cooking, power to run appliances, etc; • Construction energy includes the “embodied energy” that was used to make the building materials from raw materials; • Maintenance of the building requires energy for the life of the building, estimated to be about 50 years; and • The demolition of the building and disposal of the materials will also require energy.
ENERGY USED FOR THE OPERATION OF THE HOUSEHOLD
The ongoing operation of the household requires a constant use of energy - for lighting, cooking, heating, hot water etc. Our consumption of energy for running our homes is increasing. In the twenty years from 1973 to 1993, this increase was from 17 to 19.6 Gj per person (16%), and is projected9 to increase to 21.6 Gj per person by 2009-10. Electricity Electricity was Canberra’s main form of residential energy use. The fossil fuel residential component of electricity use10 for 1993 was 3,254,472 Gj , or 10.84 Gj per person.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Gas Natural gas11 is supplied to about 44,000 houses (43%) in Canberra. In 1993, around 2.327 Pj (7.76 Gj per person) of gas was used for domestic purposes,12 mainly for space and water heating. Firewood and Heating Oil An estimated 45,000 tonnes of firewood is brought into Canberra13 each year. With an energy component of 16.2 Gj per tonne,14 this gives a 1993 consumption amount of 729,000 Gj (2.43 Gj/per person). A small amount of heating oil15 (approx. 2% of energy use) is used in Canberra homes. The table below gives an estimate of residential operating energy consumption. 6.7 Estimated Residential Operating Energy Consumption, ACT, 1993 Fuel Type
Electricity Gas Wood Heating Oil (a)
Canberra Energy Consumption (Gj) 3,254,472 2,327,000 729,000 130,000
Average Energy Consumption (Gj/cap) 10.84 7.76 2.43 0.43
Ecological Footprint per person (ha) 0.108 0.078 0.024 0.004
6,440,472
21.46
0.215
Total
(a) Heating oil estimated at 2% of total energy used.
The pattern of domestic energy use is different for each state. In Canberra, with its cold winters, energy is largely used for space heating and hot water, as the following graph shows. 6.8 Residential Energy Consumption, Canberra
lighting 4% cooking 4%
TV, radio, etc appliances 3% 3%
refrigeration 7%
space heating 52%
hot water 27%
Source: Standing Committee on Conservation, Heritage and the Environment16
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY FOR HOUSING CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND DEMOLITION
The energy used in construction and maintenance of dwellings is “embodied energy” that is the energy which has been used to mine, manufacture and transport building materials, and to construct the building. During the past 20 years, the energy intensity of ACT houses has increased due to changes in design and construction. Newer buildings (since 1980s) are more sophisticated structurally and make use of materials such as plastics which were not used in constructing older dwellings.17 As the size of houses is also increasing, the total energy used in constructing buildings is increasing markedly. Energy for Housing Construction The amount of embodied energy in specific materials varies, hence the choice of building materials affects the total amount of energy used in a dwelling. The embodied energy requirements of the components of a house, specified as the Gross Energy Requirements18 (GER), measured in Mj/ m2 , are summed to give an estimate of the total GER for the dwelling. 6.9 The Gross Energy Requirements (GER) of Building Components
The GER is the measure of all the energy which has gone into the building, including energy for: • extracting, processing and transporting the raw materials • constructing the plant which has extracted and processed the raw materials • manufacturing the building components • support services and transport to the building site • construction of the building, including transport Source: Lawson (1996)
The total GER can vary enormously, depending on the materials used to construct the building. Calculating the embodied energy in Canberra’s housing involves: •
Determining the number and size of houses and the types of construction materials used;
•
Estimating the GER of the various house components; and 91
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
•
Summing the component GERs to obtain the total embodied energy requirement.
Housing construction materials The majority of recently built Canberra homes (1983-1992) consist19 of brick walls (98.7%), concrete slab floors (71.8%) and ceramic roof tiles (90.4%). The following diagram shows the range and proportional use of building materials used in Canberra housing. Change over time is revealed by the current large proportion of concrete slab floors, whereas older Canberra houses were usually built with elevated timber floors. 6.10 Use of Construction Materials in ACT Housing 1983-1992
Source: Drawing by Lukaszyk, based on ABS Building Approval Data
Gross Energy Requirement (GER) of housing components. Houses consist of the building shell, which includes the foundations, floors, walls, roofs and other structural components, and the fitout, which includes the internal finishings and fittings, internal cupboards and painting, gas and electrical fittings, sanitary fittings, partition walls, etc. The diagram below shows the GER for various components of the building shell, while the table on the following page shows the GER for the housing fitout.20
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
6.11 The Gross Energy Requirements (GER) of Housing Components
Source: Drawing by Lukaszyk, based on Lawson (1995)
93
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
6.12 GER of Housing Fitout Components Building Fitout MJ/m2 Carpet Ceramic tiles Vinyl Timber parquetry Stud Partition Walls Built in cupboards/wardrobes Sanitary fittings Electrical fittings Gas fittings
800 630 840 640 200 180 300 280 180
Source: Lukaszyk (unpub) based on Lawson (1995)
Energy Embodied in Canberra’s Housing Using the GER estimates for various building components, Lukaszyk21 has estimated the energy embodied in the average Canberra house and associated structures, shown below. 6.13 Estimate of the Energy Embodied in Housing, ACT
Source: Diagram by Lukaszyk.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Using the above estimates, the total energy embodied in materials for Canberra’s housing construction are shown below. 6.14 Estimated Energy Embodied in Housing Construction, ACT Average Size (m2) 157
Total Area Covered (m2) 16,956,000
GER (Gj/ m2) 4.85
Total Energy (Gj)
Garages/carports
29
3,132,000
1.53
4,791,960
Verandah/deck
12
1,296,000
1.03
1,334,880
9
972,000
0.80
777,600
207
22,356,000
Housing structure Dwellings
Garden shed Total
82,236,600
89,141,040
Energy in Housing Maintenance, Repair, and Demolition Maintenance and demolition of housing also require energy, and it has been estimated21 that the proportions of energy used in buildings are as follows: •
60% for extraction, primary and secondary manufacturing and installation of building materials on the building site;
•
34% for maintenance, repair and replacement over a 50 year lifespan of the building;
•
6% for transportation and disposal of materials.
The table below shows the estimated amount of energy used, and the total and per person ecological footprint for energy in Canberra housing. These figures are calculated allowing: • an estimated lifetime of 50 years for houses; • a population of 300,000; and, • an estimate of 100 Gj per 1 ha of land. 6.15 Estimated Total Embodied Energy in Housing, ACT Energy Use
Total Energy (50 years) (Gj)
Total Energy (p.a.) (Gj)
Per capita Energy (Gj)
Construction
89,141,040
1,782,821
Maintenance
50,513,256
Disposal Total
5.94
Ecological Footprint Canberra (ha) 17,828.21
Ecological Footprint Per capita (ha) 0.059
1,010,265
3.37
10,102.65
0.034
8,914,104
178,282
0.59
1,782.82
0.006
148,568,400
2,971,368
9.90
29,713.68
0.099
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
TOTAL HOUSING LAND
CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT FOR HOUSING
The table below draws together the calculations made in each of the above sections, to give an estimate of the ecological footprint for housing in the ACT. These figures are added to those for the other consumption categories to provide an estimate of the total ecological footprint in Chapter 10.
6.16 Estimated Ecological Footprint (per person) for Canberra Housing
Const/maint
Consumed Land 0.013
Garden Land 0.020
Forest Land 0.011
Operation Total Housing
0.013
0.020
96
0.011
Energy Land 0.099
Total Land
0.215
0.215
0.314
0.358
0.137
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
References and Notes 1. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996) ACT in Focus. ABS Cat 1307.8 Canberra. 2. ABS Cat 1307.8 3. Lukaszyk, J (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological Footprint - The Built Environment. Canberra University Research Project. 4. Lukaszyk, J (unpub) 5. ACT Department of Planning staff - pers comm. 6. Simpson R, Lowe I and Petroeschevsky A (1997) Draft Report - The Ecological Footprint of Australia, with a Focus on the South-East Queensland Region. Griffith University. Brisbane. 7. Resource Assessment Commission (RAC) (1991) Forest and Timber Inquiry. Final Report. GPS Canberra 8. Simpson R, Lowe I and Petroeschevsky A (1997) 9. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996) Australians and the Environment ABS Cat 4601.0. Canberra. Page 250. 10. See Chapter 3. 11. ACT Commissioner for the Environment (1994). ACT State of the Environment Report. ACT Government. Canberra.. Page130. 12. ACT Commissioner for the Environment (1995). ACT State of the Environment Report. ACT Government. Canberra. Page 171. 13. Alison Treweek, Canberra University, pers com. 14. Bush, et al, (1995) Australian Energy Consumption and Production: Historical Trends and Projects to 2009-10. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics. Canberra. Page 48. 15. Heating oil 16. Standing Committee on Conservation, Heritage and the Environment (1992) Page 18. 17. Lukaszyk, J (unpub). 18. Lawson, B (1996) Building Materials, Energy and the Built Environment: Towards Ecologically Sustainable Development. Royal Australian Institute of Architects. Canberra. 19. Lukaszyk, J (unpub). 20. Lawson, W. R. (1995) The Environmental Impacts of Building Materials. in Rethinking the Built Environment. Proceedings of the Catalyst ‘95 Conference. Canberra University. Canberra. 21. Parker, A H (1993) Urban Form and Appropriated Carrying Capacity. An Examination of the City Centre” of the Richmond, BC. University of British Columbia Task Force on Planning Health and Sustainable Communities.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
22.
7. TRANSPORT This chapter looks at the various ways our transport use generates an ecological footprint. These include the actual land covered by road and pavements, bus and train stations and the airport; and the energy used to manufacture and run our private passenger cars, public transport vehicles including buses, trains and planes; and freight vehicles.
The Ecological Footprint for Transport in the ACT is 0.77 ha or about 10 house blocks per person The following land types make up the ecological footprint for transport: 7.1 The Ecological Footprint Land Types used for Transport in the ACT the consumed land used by transport CONSUMED infrastructure
ENERGY
the energy land (fuel) used to operate our motor vehicles.
the energy land (embodied energy) used to manufacture and maintain our motor vehicles,
the energy land (embodied energy) used to construct and maintain our transport infrastructure.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CONSUMED LAND
LAND CONSUMED BY TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
The land “consumed” by transport infrastructure is the area covered over by paved surfaces and buildings - hence not able to be used for other purposes. Transport infrastructure includes roads, pavements, carparks, train lines, airports. Roads ACT roads can be classified into three groups: • National roads, which include highways between Canberra and other capitals, and roads providing access to national capital facilities, eg Commonwealth buildings, Parliament House; • Territorial roads - the major arterial roads that connect city and town centres and suburbs, and ACT rural roads; and • Municipal roads which provide access from territorial roads to local residential areas and to local retail and community centres.1 At the beginning of 1993, ACT roads covered2 a distance of 2,305 km, or 5,209 km lane length. Sealed roads are estimated3 to cover a total area of about 1,796 ha. This area includes only the carriageway areas for vehicles, all other paving is included below - under pavements.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Pavements Pavements include footpaths, walkways, kerbs, gutters, parking areas, bike paths, driveways to all buildings including houses, industrial yards, shopping plazas - all outdoor paved surfaces except actual road carriageways. The total area of pavements in the ACT has been estimated4 to be about 2,277 ha. Canberra Airport Canberra airport is an essential transport link for the city providing regular domestic and regional flights operate, although international flights do not operate directly into Canberra. The total area5 is 149 ha, with a runway area of 196,000m2 and terminal covering 9,000m2. Bus and Train Stations Canberra has one train station, at Kingston, which forms the terminus for the CanberraSydney rail link. The Jolimont Travel Centre in Civic acts as the terminal for long-distance buses. The ACTION bus service operates the ACT’s public bus system, including school buses. At mid 1993, ACTION operated.6 • 422 buses (387 rigid and 35 articulated); • 3 interchanges (Woden, Civic, Belconnen) and 1 bus station (Tuggeranong); • 3 bus depots and daily maintenance workshops, 1 central workshop and support vehicles. The bus/train facilities are estimated to cover about 50 ha of land. The Canberra-Sydney rail line extends though about 10 km of the ACT. Allowing a 30m easement for the rail line, this adds a further 30 ha, giving a total of 80 ha. As shown in the table below, the estimated ecological footprint for land consumed by transport in Canberra is 4,302 ha. Assuming a population of 300,000, this gives a per person ecological footprint of 0.014 ha. 7.2 Area Consumed by Transport Infrastructure, Canberra, 1993/94 Transport Infrastructure
Total area (ha)
Roads Pavements Airport Bus/Train Stations Total
1,796 2,277 149 80 4,302
100
Per person area (m2) 59.87 75.90 4.97 2.67 143.41
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY LAND
As outlined in chapter 3, transport is one of the largest users of energy in the economy, and much of this energy - petroleum - is imported. Transport energy includes the fuel needed to operate our vehicles - cars, trucks, lanes, trains, etc. It also includes the “embodied” energy which was used to make and maintain our vehicles and our transport infrastructure - roads, airports, bus stations, etc. The ecological footprint for energy land includes the following: 7.3 The Transport Components of Energy Land The energy contained in fuels used to operate transport vehicles.
+
+
The energy used and hence “embodied” in manufacturing, maintenance and disposal of vehicles.
+
+
The energy “embodied” in manufacturing, maintenance and demolition of transport infrastructure. ROADS + PAVEMENTS + AIRPORT + BUS AND TRAIN STATIONS
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY USED IN THE OPERATION OF VEHICLES
Road Transport Road transport fuels are mainly petrol, diesel and LPG. The Canberra consumption of liquid fuels was based on the 1991 Survey of Motor Vehicle Use.7 The fuel usage for 1993 was estimated at 10% above that for 1991, based on the increase of motor vehicles in the ACT from 1991 to 1993.8 The energy consumption was calculated using the conversion figures given below:.. 7.4 Energy Conversion Factors for Liquid Fuels9 Petrol Diesel LPG
0.0342 Gj/L 0.0386 Gj/L 0.0265 Gj/L
The estimated fuel and energy consumption for road transport is shown in the following table. 7.5 Fuels and Energy Used for Road Transport, Canberra, 1993 Sector Petrol Diesel LPG ML Passenger Vehicles Commercial Vehicles Government Buses Total
PJ
ML
PJ
ML
Total
PJ
ML
PJ
281.93
9.64
3.85
0.15
8.47
0.22 294.25
41.36
1.41
42.57
1.64
2.86
0.07
86.79
3.12
1.10
0.04
14.52
0.56
0
0
15.62
0.60
324.39
11.09
60.94
2.35
11.33
0.29 396.66
13.73
Data Source: ABS Motor Vehicle Survey, 1991, figures extrapolated for 1993.
Rail Transport There is no internal rail system in Canberra, however the Canberra-Sydney link operates 3 times per day and is well patronised. It has been estimated10 that that intercity rail travel in Australia requires an average per capita energy consumption of 0.152 Gj/yr, and this national
102
10.01
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
estimate has been used for Canberra.
103
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Air Transport Calculating the amount of fuel and hence energy used by Canberrans in air travel as complicated by a number of factors, including: the percentage of the seats occupied in the plane, the size is the plane’s engine, whether travellers are Canberrans or visitors; whether the travel to and from Canberra (direct flights only available to Sydney, Melbourne or Wagga) the complete journey or just part of it; the percentage of freight carried. Given these complications, the energy used for air travel has been assumed to be the national average, calculated by taking the total energy consumed in Australia for air travel in 1993/94 (approx 144.5 Pj)11 and dividing this by the Australian population at the beginning of 1994 (approx 16,472,376)12 to give a per capita consumption of 8.77 Gj. The proportions of private and public passenger transport and freight can then be estimated. Of the 144.5 Pj used nationally for air travel, 141.1 Pj was aviation turbine fuel, used by the international, domestic and regional services for regular public flights. Most domestic freight is carried by road, except a small quantity of high value freight, which is carried by air. It has been assumed, by comparing the weight of air cargo including mail with the estimated total weight of passengers carried by domestic flights,13 that freight accounts for 1% of the load. Aviation gasoline (3.4 Pj) is mainly used in the general aviation sector - mainly smaller planes usually on privately chartered flights. It has been assumed that about 30% of the load on these flights is freight, with the rest being private passengers. The energy used in air travel has therefore been apportioned as shown below. 7.6 Fuel Energy Used in Air Transport, Australia, 1993/94 Public Passenger Total Pop (Pj) Av. per person (Gj)
139.68 8.48
Private Passenger 2.38 0.14
Freight
Total
2.43 0.15
144.49 8.77
Total Operating Energy for Transport The fuel energy used by the transport sectors have been drawn together in the table below:
SECTOR
Road
7.7 Transport Fuel Energy Consumption, ACT, 1993/94 PRIVATE PUBLIC FREIGHT TOTAL PASSENGER PASSENGER Total Per pers Total Per pers Total Per pers Total Per pers Pj Gj Pj Gj Pj Gj Pj Gj 10.01 33.37 0.60 2.00 3.12 10.40 13.73 45.77
Rail
0.05
0.15
Air
0.04
0.14
2.54
8.48
0.05
10.10
33.66
3.14
10.48
3.17
Total
104
0.05
0.15
0.15
2.63
8.77
10.55
16.41
54.69
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY USED FOR VEHICLE MANUFACTURE, MAINTENANCE AND DISPOSAL
Energy used in the Manufacture of Motor Vehicles The energy used in the manufacture and maintenance of motor vehicles is “embodied energy”, and includes the energy used to mine, transport and manufacture the raw materials and vehicle components; and to transport the completed vehicle. Motor vehicles are comprised of approximately 20,000 different components and dozens of types of materials.14 Their manufacture consumes the following proportion of materials15 used annually in the US - lead (70%), iron (34%), aluminium (20%), steel (14%) and copper (10%). The materials, production and assembly methods, transport of raw materials as well size and style of vehicle vary considerably and hence so does the amount of embodied energy. The following diagram shows estimates of the quantities of raw materials and the energy embodied in these materials, used to produce a medium sized European car.
7.8 Estimates of Embodied Energy (Gj) in Raw Materials (kg) - Medium European Car
Sheet steel (550 kg: 24 Gj) Other steel (227 kg: 13 Gj) Cast iron (131 kg: 5 Gj)
Glass (35 kg: 1.5Gj) Rubber (55 kg: 8 Gj) Plastics (44 kg: 7 Gj)
Aluminium alloys (15 kg: 4.4 Gj) Zinc alloys (5 kg: 0.5 Gj) Copper alloys (9 kg: 0.5 Gj)
Lead (12 Kg: 0.4 Gj) Paints (14 kg: 2.7 Gj) Paper&cloth(15kg: 14 Gj)
Total 1,112 kg raw materials: 68 Gj energy Source: Henham and Jacobson (1981)
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
In addition to the energy embodied in the raw materials, it has been estimated16 that the energy costs of component manufacture and final assembly range from 63 Gj for a medium US car to 78 Gj for a European model. The researchers note that these figures are higher than those quoted by vehicle manufacturers who tend to focus on the energy consumed in the manufacturing processes but leave out the energy embodied in the raw materials and the energy used outside their factories to make and supply various components. At the time this research was done, it was noted that Japanese cars are probably less energy intensive than those produced in the US and Europe. Based on the above data the energy embodied (raw materials plus manufacturing) in an average passenger car would be in the range of 121-156 Gj. Given that cars have become lighter (less raw materials) and that production efficiency has improved since this estimate was made in the early eighties, an estimate of 100 Gj per average vehicle has been made for the Canberra fleet. Estimates for embodied energy in the Canberra fleet are presented in the following table, based on motor vehicle registrations in the ACT17 as at 30 June 1993. Using the average of 100 Gj for passenger vehicles, trucks, buses and motorcycles have been extrapolated from this estimate. 7.10 Estimate of Energy Embodied in the Canberra Motor Vehicle Fleet, 1993 Vehicle Type No. Embodied Total vehicles Energy/vehicl Embodied e (Gj) Energy (Gj) 150,028 100 15,002,800 Passenger Vehicles 16,692
100
1,669,200
3,973
300
1,191,900
1,016
300
304,800
4,615
50
230,750
Motor Cycles Total Motor Vehicles
176,324
n.a
18,399,450
Other (mainly trailers)
24,510
25
612,750
n.a
n.a
19,012,200
Light Commercial Vehicles
Trucks
Buses
Total (inc trailers)
Data Source: ABS ACT in Focus - 1307.8, 1996
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Energy used in the Maintenance, Repair and Disposal of Motor Vehicles As we know, vehicles require ongoing maintenance and repair, and ultimately disposal. It has been estimated18 that the proportional energy use of vehicles over their service life as comprising: manufacture (18%); maintenance (13%) and operation (69%). Using these proportions and allowing a small amount of maintenance energy for disposal, the respective proportions of energy are shown below, note that this estimate does not include operation, which is addressed in the previous section: •
58% for extraction, manufacturing and transport to point of sale;
•
40% for maintenance and repair over a 10 year lifespan of the vehicle;
•
2% for disposal of the vehicle.
The table below shows the estimated amount of energy used, and the total and per person ecological footprint for energy in Canberra’s vehicle fleet. These figures are calculated allowing: • an estimated lifetime of 10 years for vehicles; • a population of 300,000; and, • an estimate of 100 Gj per 1 ha of land.
7.11 Estimate of Total Energy Embodied Energy in Motor Vehicles Total Energy (10 years) Gj
Total Energy (1 year) Gj
Manufacture
19,012,200
1,901,220
Maintenance
13,111,862
Disposal Total
6.34
Canberra Ecological Footprint (ha) 1,9012.20
Per person Ecological Footprint (ha) 0.063
1,311,186
4.37
13,111.86
0.044
655,593
65,559
0.22
655.59
0.002
32,779,655
3,277,965
10.93
32,779.65
0.109
107
Per person Energy Gj
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY EMBODIED IN TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Roads The amount of energy embodied in Canberra roads has been estimated19 as 470 Mj/kg. This figure includes the quarrying and transport of raw materials, the production of bitumen and the construction itself. Multiplying this figure by the area covered by roads (17,960,000m2), gives a total embodied energy of 8,441,200 Gj. Pavement The amount of energy embodied in Canberra pavements has been estimated20 as 750 Mj/kg. This figure includes the energy inputs as used for roads, above. Multiplying this figure by 2 the area covered by pavements (22,770,000 m ) gives a total embodied energy of 17,077,500 Gj. Airport Canberra airport21 has a runway area of 196,000 m2.. Assuming that the runway materials are similar to those used for concrete pavements (750 Mj/m2) the embodied energy would be 147,000 Gj. Assuming that the terminal building, covering 9,000 m2, is composed mainly of concrete and glass and would embody22 about 6 Gj/ m2 the embodied energy in the terminal building would be 54,000 Gj, giving a total for the airport of 201,000 Gj. Bus and Train Stations The Canberra infrastructure for bus and rail travel - Kingston Station, the Jolimont Travel Centre, and the bus interchanges and depots - is estimated to contain about 200,000 Gj about half this figure used each for buildings and for paved surfaces. Embodied Energy in Construction of Transport Infrastructure The table below summarises the above estimates for construction energy. 7.12 Embodied Energy in Construction of Transport Infrastructure, Canberra Buildings
Paved Areas
Total
154,000 Gj
25,765,700 Gj
25,919,700 Gj
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Energy used in Construction, Maintenance and Demolition of Transport Infrastructure Maintenance and demolition of transport infrastructure also require energy, and the estimates used in chapter 6 for housing stock have also been used for these structures: • 60% for extraction, primary and secondary manufacturing and construction of transport infrastructure; • 34% for maintenance, repair and replacement over a the lifespan of the buildings and paved surfaces; • 6% for demolition and disposal of materials. The table below shows the estimated amount of energy used, and the total and per person ecological footprint for energy in Canberra’s transport infrastructure. These figures are calculated allowing: • an estimated average lifetime of 50 years for buildings and 15 years for paved surfaces; • a population of 300,000; and, • an estimate of 100 Gj per 1 ha of land. 7.13 Estimated Total Energy Embodied in Transport Infrastructure Energy Use
Construction Maintenance Disposal Total
Total energy 50 years 15 years 25,919,700 14,687,830 2,591,970 43,199,500
Total Energy (1 year) Gj
Per capita Energy Gj
1,720,793 975,116 172,079 2,867,989
5.74 3.25 0.57 9.56
Canberra Ecological Footprint (ha) 17,207.93 9,751.16 1,720.79 82,679.89
Per Capita Ecological Footprint (ha) 0.057 0.032 0.006 0.095
Total Ecological Footprint for Energy The following table gives an estimate of the total energy used to construct, maintain and operate Canberra’s transport system. The proportional energy embodied in motor vehicles is based on the total energy within each vehicle category. 7.14 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Energy Land, Canberra, 1993/94 ENERGY TYPE Operating Embodied (Vehicles) Embodied (Infrastructure) Total
PRIVATE PASSENGER Gj ha 33.66 0.337 8.74 0.087
PUBLIC PASSENGER Gj ha 10.48 0.105 0.22 0.022
FREIGHT
TOTAL
Gj 10.55 1.97
ha 0.106 0.019
Gj 54.69 10.93
ha 0.547 0.109
7.65
0.077
0.19
0.019
1.72
0.017
9.56
0.096
50.05
0.501
10.89
0.109
14.24
0.142
75.18
0.752
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
TOTAL TRANSPORT LAND
CANBERRA’S TRANSPORT ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
The table below draws together the calculations made in each of the above sections, to give an estimate of the ecological footprint for transport in the ACT. These figures are added to those for the other consumption categories to provide an estimate of the total ecological footprint in Chapter 10.
7.15 Estimated Ecological Footprint (per person) for Transport, ACT, 1993/94 Transport Types
Consumed Land
Total Land
0.013
Total Energy Land 0.501
Private motorised Public motorised
0.000
0.109
0.109
Goods Transport
0.003
0.142
0.145
Total Transport
0.015
0.752
0.767
110
0.514
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
References and Notes 1. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1994) ACT in Focus. Cat No 1307.8. Canberra. Page 2. ABS (1994) Cat 1307.8. Page 3. Lukaszyk, J (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological Footprint - The Built Environment. University of Canberra Research Project. Page 4. Lukaszyk, (unpub). Page 5. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997) Australian Transport and the Environment. Cat 4605.0. Canberra. Page 56. 6. ABS (1994) Cat 1307.8. Page 7. 1991 Survey of Motor Vehicle Use ACT Commissioner for the Environment (1995). ACT State of the Environment Report. ACT Government. Canberra. 8. ABS (1994) Cat 1307.8. Page 116. 9. Bush, et al, (1995) Australian Energy Consumption and Production: Historical Trends and Projects to 2009-10. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics. Canberra. Page 49. 10. Simpson, et al (1997) 11. Bush, et al, (1997) Australian Energy Consumption and Production: Historical Trends and Projects to 2009-10. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics. Canberra. Page 122. 12. Bush, et al (1995) 13. Calculations based on the number of domestic passengers given in ABS (1997) Cat 4605.0. Page 69. 14. Young, SB “Materials in LCA” in Curran, M A (1996) Environmental Life Cycle Assessment. McGraw-Hill. New York. 15. Hamilton cites research by the Rocky Mountains Institute in: Hamilton, NTM (1997) Sustainable Energy Policy for Australia: A Resource Conserving Viewpoint. CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology. Lyneham ACT. 16. Henham, A and Jacobson, M “Energy Requirements for the Motor Car - Analysis and Opportunites for Conservation” in Fazzolare, RA and Smith CB (eds) (1981) Beyond the Energy Crisis: Opportunities and Challenges. 3rd International Conference on Energy Use and Management. Pergamon Press Oxford. 17. ABS ACT in Focus - Cat 1307.8, 1996:135. 18. Henham and Jacobson (1981) 19. Lukaszyk (unpub) 20. Lukaszyk (unpub) 21. ABS (1997) Cat 4605.0 22. Lukaszyk (unpub)
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
8. CONSUMER GOODS Our ecological footprint for consumer goods tends to be complex to calculate given the quantity and diversity of goods which we use buy and use in our daily lives. This chapter includes goods which range from tobacco and alcohol, through household furnishings and recreation and equipment to medicines and personal care products.
The Ecological Footprint for Consumer Goods in the A.C.T is 0.67 ha or 8.7 house blocks per person. The following land types make up the ecological footprint for consumer goods: 8.1 The Ecological Footprint Land Types used for Consumer Goods in the A.C.T CONSUMED
The consumed land used for municipal waste disposal.
CROP
The crop land used to grow crops including cotton and tobacco.
FOREST
The forest land used for packaging and producing books and magazines.
ENERGY
The energy land - embodied in the consumer goods.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CONSUMED LAND
Land “consumed “ in the production and use of consumer goods includes mainly that land reserved for municipal waste disposal and land covered by commercial buildings such as factories. As outlined in Chapter 4, Canberra’s production of goods is low (about 10% of the economy), so all commercial buildings have been included together in Chapter 9 (services). LAND CONSUMED BY WASTE DISPOSAL
The quantities of Canberra’s waste have been outlined in Chapter 3. The landfill areas currently consumed to hold our waste1 - the Mugga Lane and West Belconnen landfills cover an area of 235 ha. However, based on OECD estimates of the waste generated during mining, farming, manufacturing and transport of goods outlined in Table 3.13, Canberra’s total waste of 405,940 tonnes in 1993/94 would require a landfill area of 5,875 ha. Leaving aside the builders spoil already accounted for in Chapter 6, the area required for Canberra’s waste disposal is reduced to 4,030 ha. Canberra’s lakes are also part of the cities waste treatment system, but cannot be seen as “consumed” land. The lakes also provide a service to Canberra residents through recreation opportunities and visual amenity so they have been included under “garden” - that is reversibly consumed land in Chapter 9. 8.2 Estimate of Land Consumed by Waste Disposal, Canberra, 1993/94 Ecological Footprint Canberra (ha) 4,030
Ecological Footprint per person (ha) 0.013
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CROP AND GRAZING LAND
Crops used to produce consumer goods included cotton and tobacco. The Griffith University2 ecological footprint study has estimated that about 0.011 ha of crop land per person is used for consumer goods, this figure has been used in the interim until further research is done. Grazing land is used for wool producing sheep. In the southern tables of NSW, graziers aim for a yield of 50kg/ha, with 30kg/ha a more likely result.3 The estimated yield from the local statistical area is 15-18 kg/ha, however, this does not allow for other uses of the land. For the purposes of these calculations, we have used 30 kg/ha of greasy wool. Clean wool weighs 70% of greasy wool, so the yield of clean wool is estimated to be 21 kg/ha. The average annual use by individual Australians is 1.74 kg/year,4 including wool for clothing, furnishings and carpets. Based on these data, the estimated per person wool consumption is estimated to be 0.083 ha, as shown in the table below. 8.3 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Crop and Grazing Land for Consumer Goods, Canberra, 1993/94 Type of Land Use Ecological Footprint Ecological Footprint Canberra (ha) per person (ha) Crops land or tobacco and cotton 3,300 0.011 Grazing land for wool 24,857 0.083
FOREST LAND
This land includes the forest products used for packaging , books and magazines. The Griffith University5 ecological footprint study has estimated that about 0.186 ha of forest land per person is used for consumer goods. As this figure was based on 1990/91 consumption data for forest products, it has been updated by 14% to correlate with 1993/94 consumption data. The forest land required per person is therefore about 0.212 ha.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY LAND
The energy used in consumer goods is calculated by multiplying the amount of expenditure for each goods category shown below by the energy intensity figure for that category, as shown in the table below. Energy intensity is calculated by measuring all the energy inputs and outputs for each sector of the economy and then calculating an average figure for that sector. 6,7,8,9
8.4 Calculating Embodied Energy, Using Energy Intensity Data
Expenditure
$A
X
Energy Intensity Gj/$A
=
Embodied Energy Gj
The average consumption of these goods is based on the Household Expenditure Survey10 1993/94, which gives estimates for weekly expenses which have been used to estimate annual expenditure and hence consumption. Using expenditure as a way measure consumption of goods is not without flaws - as we all know. For most consumer items, say TV sets, there is a product range with prices which differ according to quality of components or design, costs of production in different parts of the world and all sorts of other factors such as the retailers need to make space for a new models in the showroom. Expenditure and resource consumption are thus not closely related - however using expenditure data allows us to make an estimate of consumption of energy. The consumption categories, together with the average per person weekly expenditure for each category, are outlined in the following table.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
8. 5 Public and Private Expenditure on Consumer Goods, Canberra, 1993/94 Tobacco and Alcohol Tobacco and alcohol includes the whole range of tobacco products and alcoholic beverages. The average weekly per person expenditure on tobacco and alcohol was $9.82. Clothing Clothing includes clothing and footwear of all types - made from natural and synthetic fibres, local made and imported. Average weekly per person expenditure was $15.22. Household Furniture and Appliances Household Furniture and Equipment includes furniture, furnishings, cleaning products, linen, white goods, electrical appliances, garden and swimming pool products. Average weekly per person expenditure was $20.82. Books and Magazines Books and magazines includes books, newspaper, magazines and other printed material. Average weekly per person expenditure was $3.85. Other Recreation Equipment Other recreation goods includes TV sets, camping gear, sports equipment, home computer equipment, video cassettes, musical instruments. Average weekly per person expenditure was $14.61. Health Care Products Health care products includes medicines and pharmaceutical products, dressings, therapeutic appliances. Average weekly per person expenditure was $2.13. Personal Care Personal care includes household toiletries like toothpaste, shampoo, etc. Average weekly per person expenditure was $3.35. Other Goods Miscellaneous goods includes watches and clocks, travel luggage, jewellery, stationery. Average weekly per person expenditure was $4.24.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY LAND IN CONSUMER GOODS
The table below uses energy intensity figures and household expenditure data to estimate the energy embodied in consumer goods.
8.6 Estimated Energy Embodied in Consumer Goods, Canberra, 1993/94 Consumer Goods
Av. Annual Expenditure ($A) 510
Av. Energy Intensity (Gj/$A) 0.0106
Energy Embodied (Gj) 5.4
Ecological Footprint per person (ha) 0.054
791
0.0038
3.0
0.030
1,083
0.0099
10.7
0.107
200
0.0090
1.8
0.018
Other Recreation Goods
760
0.0099
7.5
0.075
Health Care Products
111
0.0148
1.6
0.016
Personal Care
174
0.0147
2.6
0.026
Miscellaneous Goods
230
0.0086
2.0
0.020
3,861
n.a
34.6
0.346
Tobacco and Alcohol Clothing Household Furniture and Equipment Books and Magazines
Total
Data Sources: ABS Household Expenditure Survey; Appendix 2.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
TOTAL CONSUMER GOODS LAND
CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT FOR CONSUMER GOODS
The table below draws together the calculations made in each of the above sections, to give an estimate of the ecological footprint for consumer goods in the A.C.T. These figures are added to those for the other consumption categories to provide an estimate of the total ecological footprint in Chapter 10. 8.7 Estimated Ecological Footprint for Consumer Goods Consumed Crop Land Land
Grazing Land
Forest Land
Tobacco/Alcoh Clothing Furni/Appl Books/Mags Recreation Equ Health Care Personal Care Other Goods Total Goods
0.013
0.011
0.083
118
0.212
Energy Land 0.054 0.030 0.107 0.018 0.075 0.016 0.026 0.020
Total Land
0.346
0.665
0.054 0.030 0.107 0.018 0.075 0.016 0.026 0.020
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
References and Notes 1. Marsden-Ballard, D (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological footprint - Waste. Canberra University Research Project. 2. Simpson R, Lowe I and Petroeschevsky A (1997) Draft Report - The Ecological Footprint of Australia, with a Focus on the South-East Queensland Region. Griffith University. Brisbane. 3. John Ive, CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology - pers comm. 4. Alison Gamble, International Wool Secretariat, Melbourne - pers comm. 5. Simpson R, Lowe I and Petroeschevsky A (1997) 6. Common, M (1995) Sustainability and Policy. Limits to Economics. Cambridge University. London. 7. Common, MS and Salma, U (1992a) “Accounting for Changes in Australian Carbon Dioxide Emissions” in Energy Economics. Butterworth-Heinmann. 8. Common MS and Salma, U (1992b) An Economic Analysis of Australian Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Energy Use. Australian National University. Canberra. 9. Close, A (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological Footprint - Energy. Canberra University Research Project. 10. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1995) Summary of Results: 1993/94 Household Expenditure Survey. Australia. ABS Cat No 6530.0. Canberra
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9. SERVICES Services cover a wide range of activities in the community, ranging from education and health care through financial services and insurance to tourism and recreation. Some of these activities are funded by governments, some privately and some are funded by both sectors. The ecological footprint for services is calculated using a range of data sources, including estimates of land area “consumed” by commercial and public buildings and energy intensity data for expenditure within the various service categories.
The Ecological footprint for Services in the ACT is 1.26 ha or 16.3 house blocks per person.
The following land types make up the ecological footprint for services: 9.1 The Ecological Footprint Land Types used for Services in the ACT CONSUMED The consumed land used by buildings in the services sector, eg schools, hospitals, government offices, banks. GARDEN
The garden land used for public open space and recreation.
ENERGY
The energy land (embodied energy) in the operation and construction of service buildings
The energy land (embodied energy) in providing the services.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
CONSUMED LAND
Land Consumed by Commercial and Public Buildings
Commercial and public buildings includes all buildings except residential housing, that is office buildings, hotel, motels, hospitals, schools, universities, churches, shops and restaurants, industrial buildings, warehouses, laboratories. Lukaszyk1 has estimated that the total area of commercial and public buildings is 543 ha (single storey). The ecological footprint for land consumed by commercial and public buildings is shown in the table below.
9.2 Estimate of Land Consumed by Commercial and Public Buildings, Canberra, 1993/94 Ecological Footprint Ecological Footprint Canberra (ha) per person (ha) 543 0.002
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
GARDEN LAND
Garden Land Used for Urban Open Space
Garden land includes all the open space area within Canberra city, apart from bushland. These areas of “reversibly built environment” provide recreational and social opportunities as well as visual amenity to Canberra residents. Using Lukaszyk’s estimates2 of land use in the ACT (see Chapter 3), there are about 2,950 ha of open space not including bush land or water ways. Canberra’s lakes were created by damming tributaries of the Murrumbidgee River to provide visual amenity and recreation opportunities for the city. As mentioned in Chapter 8, Canberra’s lakes are part of the city’s waste treatment system, as they receive most of the storm water runoff from urban and residential area. The lakes have been included under “garden” - that is reversibly consumed land. Their total area3 is about 1,900 ha. The table below shows the ecological footprint for garden land used for services. 9.3 Estimate of Garden Land Used for Services, Canberra, 1993/94 Garden Area Open space
Ecological footprint Canberra (ha) 2,950
Ecological footprint per person (ha) 0.010
Lake system
1,900
0.006
Total
4,850
0.016
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY LAND
Energy used to provide services includes the energy used in commercial and public buildings, for construction/maintenance/disposal and for on-going operations; and the energy embodied in the services themselves, through the range of goods and services needed to form the basis for any service to be provided.
ENERGY USED IN SERVICE BUILDINGS
Estimating the energy land footprint involves calculating the amount of energy used for the operation, construction, maintenance and disposal of service buildings: • Operation energy includes the energy used for the day-to-day running of government and business enterprises - heating/cooling, lighting, cooking, power to run office machinery, etc; • Construction energy includes the “embodied energy” that was used to make the building materials from raw materials; • Maintenance of the building requires energy for the life of the building, estimated to be about 50 years; • The demolition of the building and disposal of the materials will also require energy.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY USED FOR THE OPERATION OF SERVICE BUILDINGS
Electricity About 1,281 Gigawatt hours (GWh) of electricity was used by business and government in Canberra during 1993. As the production of goods by the Canberra economy is low, (less than 10% of gross product), this non-residential electricity use has been included under services. A total of 4,269,744 Gj or 14.23 Gj per person was used for services4.
Gas A total of 2.327 petajoules (Pj) of gas, or 50% of the Canberra total, was used by business and government during 1993, mainly for the delivery of services, this is 7.76 Gj per person5.
9.4 Energy Used for the Operation of Commercial and Public Buildings, ACT, 1993 Energy Type
Total Energy (Pj) 4,269,744
Per person Energy (Gj) 14.23
Gas
2,327,000
7.76
23,270
0.078
Total
6,596,744
21.99
65,967
0.220
Electricity
124
Ecological footprint Ecological footprint Canberra (ha) Per person (ha) 42,697 0.142
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY FOR CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND DEMOLITION OF COMMERCIAL AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS
As outlined in Chapter 6, the energy used in construction and maintenance of buildings is “embodied energy” that is the energy which has been used to mine, manufacture and transport building materials, and to construct the buildings. Energy for the Construction of Commercial and Public Buildings The amount of embodied energy in specific materials varies, hence the choice of building materials affects the total amount of energy used in a dwelling. Lukaszyk6 has used estimates of the average Gross Energy Requirements (GER) of commercial and public building types in Australia to summarise these for buildings in the ACT in the diagram below.
9.5 GER for Commercial and Public Buildings in the ACT
Shopping malls, small shops, restaurants, clubs Schools, colleges, TAFE, universities Offices, hostels, hospitals, laboratories Warehouses, industrial buildings
6 Gj/m2 10 Gj/m2 11 Gj/m2 5 Gj/m2
Source: Lukaszyk, based on Lawson, 1995.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
Embodied energy is calculated based on the size of the building area (actual land area times number of storeys) multiplied by the GER. Many of the buildings are multi-storeyed, ACT estimates of usual number of storeys are: • Shopping malls are 2 and 3 storeys; • Schools and colleges are often 2 storeys; • Offices, hotels, hospitals are 5 or more storeys; • Universities are 3 storeys or more • Warehouses and industrial buildings are usually only one storey
The following table gives estimates for embodied energy in the construction of ACT commercial and public buildings.
9.6 Energy Used in Construction of Commercial and Public Buildings , Canberra Building type
Shopping malls, shops, restaurants, clubs, etc Schools, colleges, TAFE’s universities, churches Offices, hotels, hospitals, laboratories, etc Warehouses, industrial buildings Total Building Area
Av. no. storeys
% of total area
Area (ha)
1.6
20
174
Av.Energy Embodied (Gj/m2) 6
Total energy embodied in ACT (Gj)
1.4
26
198
10
19,800,000
4.2
45
1,026
11
112,860,000
1.0
9
49
5
2,450,000
n.a.
100
1,447
n.a.
10,440,000
145,550,000
Energy in Maintenance, Repair, and Demolition of Commercial and Public Buildings Maintenance and demolition of commercial and public buildings also require energy, and using the estimates given for housing in chapter 6, the proportions of energy used in buildings7 are as follows: •
60% for extraction, primary and secondary manufacturing and installation of building materials on the building site;
•
34% for maintenance, repair and replacement over a 50 year lifespan of the building;
•
6% for transportation and disposal of materials.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
TOTAL EMBODIED ENERGY IN COMMERCIAL AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS
The table below shows the estimated amount of energy used, and the total Canberra and per person ecological footprint for energy embodied in commercial and public buildings. These figures are calculated allowing: • an estimated lifetime of 50 years for buildings; • a population of 300,000; and, • an estimate of 100 Gj per 1 ha of land.
9.7 Total Energy Embodied in Commercial and Public Buildings, Canberra (Gj) Total Energy Total Energy (50 years) Gj (1 year) Gj Construction
145,550,000
2,911,000
Per person Energy Gj 9.70
Maintenance
82,478,330
1,649,567
5.50
16,495.67
0.055
Disposal
14,555,000
291,100
0.97
2,911.00
0.010
Total
242,583,330
4,851,667
16.17
48,516.67
0.161
127
Ecological footprint Canberra (ha) 29,110.00
Ecological footprint Per person (ha) 0.097
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
ENERGY EMBODIED IN SERVICES
The energy used in services is calculated by multiplying an energy intensity figure by the amount of expenditure for each service category shown below. Energy intensity is calculated by measuring all the energy inputs and outputs for each sector of the economy and then calculating an average figure for that sector. 8 9 10 The table below shows the method of estimating embodied energy using expenditure data.
9.8 Calculating Embodied Energy, Using Energy Intensity Data
Expenditure
$A
X
Energy Intensity Gj/$A
=
Embodied Energy Gj
The public expenditure figures used for Canberra are based on an assumption of average government expenditure for all Australians.11 In contrast, the private expenditure is based on the Household Expenditure Survey12 records for Canberra’s spending during 1993/94. Some services are completely publicly or privately funded, others are funded from both sectors. The following table describes the range of services and the annual per person expenditure for each category.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
9. 9 Public and Private Expenditure on Services, Canberra, 1993/94 General Public Services General public services includes the cost of government administration, the annual per person public expenditure is $794. Defence The costs of funding the defence forces comes from the annual per person public expenditure of $523. Public order and safety The police force and courts re funded through the annual per person public expenditure of $329.
Education The annual per person public expenditure of $1,250 were for building, maintaining, operating and staffing schools and universities. The highest proportion of funds (55%) went to providing primary education. The annual private per person expenditure of $212 was used mainly for school fees at all levels of schooling, at both government and independent schools. Almost a third of the expenditure is for the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS). Health The public funds ($1,335 per person annually) are for the building, maintaining, operating and staffing hospitals and clinics; and the subsidisation of health care costs through Medicare. The privately spent funds ($149 per person) include fees for general practitioners and specialists, dentists, opticians. Almost 40% of private expenditure is for dental costs. Social security and welfare The annual per person public expenditure was $2,517. Most of these funds (87%) went to provide the range of pensions and benefits, including unemployment benefits. The remainder went to providing other welfare services for the community.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
9. 9 Public and Private Expenditure on Services, Canberra, 1993/94 (continued) Housing and community amenities The annual per person public expenditure is $220. These funds went largely on providing and maintaining public housing (32%), water and sanitation (60%) The private funds ($315 per person) went mainly on gifts to charities (30%), union fees (27%), and child care services (28%). Recreation and culture The annual per person public expenditure is $221. Private funds were $457 per person. Financial Services This includes services like banking and insurance. The annual per person private expenditure was $2,694.
Household services This includes household services like cleaning. The annual per person private expenditure was $142. Personal care Personal care includes services such as hairdressing. The annual per person private expenditure was $92.
Tourism The annual per person private expenditure was $436.
Other services The annual per person private expenditure was $732.
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The following table shows the calculations for embodied energy for the services sector, based on annual services expenditure. 9.10 Ecological Footprint (per person) for Energy Embodied in Services, Canberra, 1993/94 Purpose
Public (a) Spending ($A)
Private (b) Spending ($A)
Total Spending ($A)
Energy Intensity (Gj/$A)
Energy Embodied (Gj)
Ecological footprint per person (ha)
General public services Defence
794
794
0.0101
8.0
0.080
523
523
0.0101
5.3
0.053
Public order and safety Education
329
329
0.0101
3.3
0.033
1,250
212
1,462
0.0057
8.3
0.083
Health
1,335
149
1,484
0.0057
8.5
0.085
Social security and welfare Housing and community amenities Recreation and culture Financial Services Household Services Personal care
2,517
2,517
0.0057
14.3
0.143
220
315
535
0.0057
3.0
0.030
221
457
678
0.0097
6.6
0.066
2,694
2,694
0.0063
17.0
0170
142
142
0.0063
0.9
0.009
92
92
0.0097
0.9
0.009
Tourism
436
436
0.0087
3.8
0.038
Other services
732
732
0.0097
7.1
0.071
5,229
12,418
n.a.
8.7
0.861
Total
7,189
Data Sources: (a) ABS 5512.0 Government Finance includes Federal, State and Local Government expenditure, national per capita; (b) ABS Household Expenditure Survey, Canberra per person.
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TOTAL SERVICES LAND
CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT FOR SERVICES
The table below draws together the calculations made in each of the above sections, to give an estimate of the ecological footprint for housing in the ACT. These figures are added to those for the other consumption categories to provide an estimate of the total ecological footprint in Chapter 10. 9.11 Estimated Ecological Footprint (per person) for Services, Canberra, 1993/94 Service
Consumed Land
Garden Land
General public services Defence Public order and safety Education Health Social security/welfare Housing and community amenities Recreation and culture Financial Services Household Services Personal care Tourism Other services Service buildings Total
0.002
0.016
132
Energy Land
Total Land
0.080 0.053 0.033 0.083 0.085 0.143 0.030
0.080 0.053 0.033 0.083 0.085 0.143 0.030
0.066 0.170 0.009 0.009 0.038 0.071 0.381
0.066 0.170 0.009 0.009 0.038 0.071 0.381
1.242
1.260
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
References and Notes 1. Lukaszyk, J (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological footprint - The Built Environment. University of Canberra Research Project. 2. Lukaszyk J (unpub) 3. Office of the Commissioner for the Environment (1995) A.C.T. State of the Environment Report. A.C.T. Government. Canberra 4. A.C.T. Electricity and Water (ACTEW) (1995) Annual Report. ACT Government. Canberra 5. Mr Denis White, Natural Gas Company, pers com. 6. Lukaszyk, based on Lawson 1995 7. Lukaszyk, (unpub) based on Parker 8. Common, M (1995) Sustainability and Policy. Limits to Economics. Cambridge University. London. 9. Common, MS and Salma, U (1992a) “Accounting for Changes in Australian Carbon Dioxide Emissions” in Energy Economics. Butterworth-Heinmann. 10. Common MS and Salma, U (1992b) An Economic Analysis of Australian Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Energy Use. Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies. ANU. Canberra. 11. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996) Government Finance, 1994/95. ABS Cat 5512.0. 12. Australian Bureau of Statistics (1995) Summary of Results: 1993/94 Household Expenditure Survey. Australia. ABS Cat 6530.0. Canberra.
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CANBERRA’S TOTAL ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT The estimations in the previous five chapters have been summed to give the total ecological footprint per person in Canberra, which is 4.44 ha. 10.1 Canberra’s Ecological Footprint Category FOOD
Hectares
Houseblocks
1.39
18.1
0.36
4.7
0.77
10.0
0.67
8.7
1.26
16.3
4.44
57.8
HOUSING
TRANSPORT
CONSUMER GOODS
SERVICES
TOTAL
=
The calculations are shown in more detail in the following table.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
10.2 Canberra’s Ecological Footprint (ha), per person, 1993/94 Consumed
FOOD Fruit, veg, grain Animal Products Total Food HOUSING Constr/main Operation Total Housing TRANSPORT Private motorised Public motorised Goods transport Total transport CONS GOODS Packaging Tobacco/Alcoh Clothing Furni/Appl Books/Mags Recreation Equ Health Care Personal Care Other Goods Total Goods SERVICES Gen public services Defence Public order/ safety Education Health Social sec/welfare Housing/commun Recreation/culture Financ’l Services H’hold Services Personal care Tourism Other services Service buildings Total Services TOTAL FOOTPRINT
Garden
Crop
Grazing
Forest
Energy
Total
0.070
0.214 0.183 0.397
0.309 0.991 1.390
0.099 0.215 0.314
0.143 0.215 0.358
0.013 0.000 0.003 0.015
0.501 0.109 0.142 0.752
0.514 0.109 0.145 0.767
0.013
0.212
0.054 0.030 0.107 0.018 0.075 0.016 0.026 0.020 0.346
0.054 0.030 0.107 0.018 0.075 0.016 0.026 0.020 0.665
0.293
0.080 0.053 0.033 0.083 0.085 0.143 0.030 0.066 0.170 0.009 0.009 0.038 0.071 0.381 1.242 3.051
0.080 0.053 0.033 0.083 0.085 0.143 0.030 0.066 0.170 0.009 0.009 0.038 0.071 0.381 1.260 4.440
0.095 0.019
0.095
0.808 0.808
0.013
0.020
0.011
0.013
0.020
0.011
0.002 0.062
0.011
0.016 0.036
0.106
135
0.083
0.891
Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
The Ecological Footprint in Houseblocks The ecological footprint for the average person in Canberra totals nearly 60 houseblocks, using an average houseblock size of 770m2 as shown in the figure below.
10.3 Canberra’s Ecological Footprint Measured in Houseblocks
TRANSPORT (10)
FOOD (18)
GOODS (9) HOUSING (5)
SERVICES (16)
Canberra’s Total Ecological Footprint When the average individual ecological footprint is multiplied by the population of 300,000 (in early 1994), the total ecological footprint for all Canberra residents comes to 1,332,000 ha or 133.2 km2. Much of this area is comprised of fertile lands able to support forests, crops and grazing animal.
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
PART FOUR
DISCUSSING CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT This part of the report includes the following chapters: 11. ASSESSING THE ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT CONCEPT A discussion about the difficulties and potentials of the ecological footprint concept.
12. REDUCING CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
↓ →
←
A look at ways the ecological footprint can be reduced.
↑
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Canberra’s Ecological Footprint
11. ASSESSING THE ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT CONCEPT This chapter looks briefly at some of the difficulties and potentials found with the ecological footprint concept, as well as outlining some of the assumptions used in estimating Canberra’s ecological footprint. Measuring the Ecological Footprint The total ecological footprint for Canberra, given in Chapter 10, is close to that calculated for the average Canadian or American in the earlier Rees and Wackernagel report.1 It is slightly higher than the Australian national average calculated by researchers at Griffith University.2 This is in keeping with the higher income and expenditure levels in the ACT, the low population density of the city with its freeway layout, low public transport usage and high private car and plane travel, and a climate which includes the coldest winters of any Australian city together with hot dry summers.3 However, the recent Wackernagel estimates4 of the averages for a wide range of nations, increased the earlier estimates by almost twofold. This is due primarily to the inclusion of Australia’s arid and semi-arid pastoral lands as part of our animal products footprint. Wackernagel’s recent estimate for an average Australian is 8.1 ha. (see Figure 2.7 - The Ecological Footprints of Nations in Chapter 2). These different outcomes of ecological footprints calculations highlight the fact that this is an evolving method for measuring resource use. There are a number of different ways to measure the ecological footprints. Most of the ecological footprints calculations around the world have used an world average land productivity. In this report we have used NSW local agricultural land productivity. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages, in this study we assumed that most produce consumed in Canberra came from NSW farms. Even within NSW, land productivity of course varies enormously, according to soil type, altitude, rainfall, etc - as one CSIRO scientist puts it “soils ain’t soils”. In this report, we have adopted the Rees and Wackernagel5 definition of energy land as the amount of land required to absorb waste CO2. This method uses an energy/land ratio of 100 Gj/ha, taking a very optimistic attitude to the world’s forest growth rates. Other ways of measuring energy land have been outlined earlier in the report.
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Data Sources Ecological footprint estimates may be calculated using a range of data, from the international level down to that for an individual or a household. For some areas of our consumption, average per person estimates exist, for example the ABS estimates of food consumption. For many areas, however, consumption has to be estimated using whatever data are available. The use of energy intensity data has been the only readily available way to measure the energy embodied in consumer goods and services. As far as possible, this report has used data which has been locally obtained. Some of the data, especially the housing estimates by Lukaszyk6 have been specially calculated for this project. Impacts and Resources Not Included in the Ecological Footprint In focusing on land area used, the ecological footprint doesn’t measure the impact of pollutants, toxic chemicals or nuclear waste on the environment. The impacts of generating hydro-electric or nuclear power are not included in this estimates. There are also some resources not included in this estimate of Canberra’s ecological footprint: Ocean Resources - The earlier work by Wackernagel and Rees did not include an estimate of the proportion of the world’s oceans consumed through seafood. The later work by Wackernagel does include an estimate for oceans, based on the view that the major productive zone of the oceans is the top 100 metres, the light penetrating zone, where photosynthetic plankton and other plant life provide the basis of the ocean’s food chains. Water Catchments - The area of catchment required to provide fresh water for the average Australian has been estimated as being around 0.27-0.37 ha per person.7 Using the ecological footprint method, it would be likely that the required catchment area would overlap with the energy land needed to absorb the waste CO2 produced during combustion of fossil fuels. Industrial Resources - although embodied energy has been included as far as possible in this report, to a certain extent embodied resources have been left out, for example the areas used to mine minerals which are the basis ingredients of many consumer items. It could be expected that mine areas are small, although their impact may be great in terms of pollution or contamination of larger sites or of the destruction of habitats. Imports and Exports - The ecological footprint estimated for Canberra is not adjusted for imports and exports on the national scale or locally. To some extent there is an assumption that the ecological footprint generated by our exports balances that which we import. Research by Lenzen8 shows that Australia’s imports and exports of embodied energy are fairly similar, at around 1,200 petajoules per year. However, energy is not the only resource measured in the ecological footprint. The inclusion of export meat from beef cattle grazed in northern Australia where stocking rates are low, due to poor soils and low rainfall, would increase Australia’s and hence Canberra’s footprint. We can conceptualise imports as having an ecological footprint outside Australia and exports as allowing other nations to have part of their ecological footprint here. The estimate of a nation’s ecological footprint through imports and exports can be very revealing. Our ecological footprints extend all over the globe.
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Equity of Global Resource Use The current estimate of a “fair Earthshare “ is 1.7 ha. This is calculated by dividing 88% of the world’s productive land by the world population. This estimate raises an equity question about the appropriation of the Earth’s resources for human beings - can we seriously expect all other species to be confined to only 12% of the available resources? Aside from the ethical questions, could this be possible in practical terms? Any given human population could be living in theoretical sustainability if its footprint fell just within the amount of biologically productive land available; however, crop failure due to disease or weather could soon underlie the apparent sustainability of that population. There is only one cake and everybody wants a piece.9 Wackernagel calculates that the world average ecological footprint is 2.3 ha - well and truly over the “fair Earthshare” but considerably less than the estimates for the average citizen living in a developed nation. With ecological footprints estimated at 4 ha and over, there can be no doubt that the developed world has taken the largest slices of the cake. Even a cursory calculation will show that most urban North American communities cannot have any serious pretence of sustainability at current consumption and waste production rates.10 This comment could well apply to the entire developed world. Although it can appear that Australians are currently living within the means of our land to supply our needs; if so, this could lead us to think that we are living “sustainably” There is a danger that this way of viewing the footprint can reinforce the view that the citizens of those countries with small populations and/or rich resources are entitled to a larger share of the earth’s bounty than those born into poorer, densely crowded countries. This attitude also denies/ignores the role of centuries of colonialism in shifting resources from the developing to the developed world. Equity of Resource Use in Australia Within any nation or community there is also the likelihood that the cake is unevenly shared. In Australia, a look at household income and expenditure data compiled by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) shows that the highest income 20% of Australian households earns 10 times the income of the lowest 20%. This includes direct benefits like age pensions and unemployment benefits. Income tax and the consequent Government spending on education, medical and housing benefits reduces this large imbalance by about half. The ABS study includes only private households - people living in hotels, nursing homes, boarding houses and institutions are not included in the calculations.11
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11.1 Wealth Distribution Across the Australian Population
Source: Australia State of the Environment Report, 199612
Impacts of Inequality on the Environment. Equality and the environment are interlinked. Poor communities often lack the resources to manage their environments and so the poor are often forced to exploit natural resources more heavily. While this pattern is clearly evident in countries where populations experience a constant struggle just to obtain adequate food supplies, in also happens in wealthy countries like Australia. High rates of unemployment in country towns can influence forest-policy decisions. Declining terms of trade for farm products can lead to the clearing of remnant vegetation. Communities in economic decline cannot afford to upgrade to less polluting or consumptive technologies and infrastructure. Inequality may generate alienation and indifference towards the public realm. Large disparities in health and social amenity may undermine concern for cultural and natural public resources.13
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Consumption Patterns in the ACT - How Average is “Average”? The ecological footprint for Canberra has been calculated for an “average” person. However, there is a wide range of incomes and expenditures among Canberra households, and the choices that individuals make about consumption vary greatly. The table below shows weekly expenditure by household, divided into five quintiles based on household income. The average household size in Canberra is 2.76 persons. 11.2 Weekly Household Expenditure ($) by Quintile, Canberra, 1993/94 EXPENDITURE
$ Q1
$ Q2
$ Q3
$ Q4
$ Q5
$ Average
Current Housing Costs
64.18
107.15
114.23
134.89
141.09
112.29
Fuel & Power (housing)
14.21
20.07
21.058
19.48
27.85
20.54
Food & Non-alcoholic Bev
67.57
94.12
120.45
150.15
202.21
126.81
Alcoholic Beverages Tobacco
9.16
12.46
19.93
23.52
28.29
18.65
7.64
9.54
10.19
8.93
6.32
8.53
Clothing & Footwear
16.85
30.98
41.67
47.36
83.80
44.11
Household Furn & Equip
21.16
22.93
46.19
68.70
74.37
46.57
Household Services & Operation Medical Care & Health Expenses Transport
23.90
28.63
41.56
44.64
58.82
39.47
12.64
18.53
29.38
32.84
48.80
28.41
57.65
93.11
120.50
161.76
206.15
127.73
Recreation
31.25
52.99
98.62
122.00
207.49
102.33
5.96
9.25
13.22
14.12
28.28
14.16
15.05
35.61
52.45
73.38
122.66
59.78
347.23
535.38
729.43
901.78 1,236.15
749.37
8.86
86.39
178.74
299.61
648.44
243.71
2.31
15.55
43.33
57.74
45.28
32.73
Other Capital Housing Costs
19.62
2.11
20.02
8.72
-79.03
-5.80
Superannuation & Life Insurance TOTAL EXPENDITURE
2.94
13.98
35.14
57.37
145.94
51.01
380.97
651.42
1,006.67
1,325.22 1,996.77
1,071.02
Personal Care Misc Commodities & Services Total Commodity & Service Expenditure Income Tax Mortgage Repayments
Source: ABS Household Expenditure Survey, 1993/94. Detailed Canberra Data.
14
The figure below includes “mortgage repayments” and “other capital housing costs” into the expenditure on housing. The minus figure for this last category in Q5 appears to be due to the inclusion of income from other housing properties.
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11.3 Weekly Household Expenditure ($) by Quintile, Canberra, 1993/94
250 200 150 100 50 Q5 Q3 Q1 Misc Commodities & Services
Personal Care
Recreation
Transport
Medical Care & Health Expenses
Household Services & Operation
Household Furn & Equip
Clothing & Footwear
Tobacco
Food & Non-alc Bev
Alcoholic Beverages
Fuel & Power
Housing
0
Source: ABS Household Expenditure Survey, 1993/94. Detailed Canberra Data.
The table below compares the expenditure by the poorer (Q1) and the wealthiest (Q5) by showing how much more the wealthy spend in each category. Apart from housing, the wealthier spend 3-4 times as much within each category than do the poor. The only categories where the wealthiest group spends less are housing costs (due to effects of income from other properties) and tobacco.
11.4 Comparison of Weekly Household Expenditure (%) by Highest Group (Q5), with Lowest Group (Q1), Canberra, 1993/94 FOOD
HOUSING
TRANSPORT
CONSUMER GOODS
SERVICES
300%
93%
360%
460%
455%
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The figures below compare the proportional expenditure within the highest (Q5) and lowest (Q1) expenditure groups. As these graphs show, the highest group spends most on consumer goods, while the lowest group spends most on housing. 11.5 Proportional Weekly Expenditure for the Highest (Q5) Group, Canberra, 1993/94
Services 17%
Food 17%
Housing 11%
Consumer Goods 38%
Transport 17%
11.6 Proportional Weekly Expenditure of the Lowest (Q1) Group, Canberra, 1993/94
Services 11%
Food 16%
Consumer Goods 24% Housing 35% Transport 14%
Do the above figures indicate that the wealthiest people in our community have a larger ecological footprint that the poorest? In general, this is so. However there are other factors to be considered, as the following examples show. In terms of food expenditure, there may be a large price difference for the various cuts of meat from the same animal, but a similar ecological footprint.15 The net energy and resource use by restaurants may compare favourably with home cooking, but the comparative prices may differ markedly. In terms of clothing expenditure, the impact of fashion on price will generally not translate to the ecological footprint. The wealthy may spend more on goods and services for which the state makes a contribution for the poorest, such as education and health care.
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The Ecological Footprint Over Time An interesting use of the ecological footprint is to compare the size of the footprint for a community or nation over time. In general, increases in economic development have led to increased energy and resource use and hence a growing ecological footprint. Parker’s analysis has shown that along with the striking achievements of the Japanese economy, which quadrupled over the period from the 1960s to the 1990s, the ecological footprint also increased from about 4 to over 7 hectares during this period. The major contributors to this growth in the ecological footprint were in the grazing land required to meet the increase in consumption of meat and dairy products and the threefold increase of energy. There were also decreases in some parts of the footprint - the area of cropland needed to produce basic foods such as vegetables, melons and cereals was reduced due to improved farm practices, crop varieties and increased non-land inputs.16 References and Notes 1. Wackernagel, M and Rees, W (1996) Our Ecological Footprint. New Society Publishers. Philadephia. Pages 82-83. 2. Simpson R, Lowe I and Petroeschevsky A (1997) Draft Report - The Ecological Footprint of Australia, with a Focus on the South-East Queensland Region. Griffith University. Brisbane. 3. Office of the Commissioner for the Environment (1995) A.C.T. State of the Environment Report. A.C.T. Government. Canberra. Page 120. 4. Wackernagel M (1997) Ecological Footprints of Nations. Earth Council. New Mexico 5. Wackernagel and Rees (1996). Pages 71-75. 6. Lukaszyk, J (unpub) Estimating Canberra’s Ecological Footprint - The Built Environment. Canberra University Research Project. 7. Wackernagel and Rees (1996) quote Barney Foran, CSIRO. 8. Lenzen, M (1997) The Energy and Greenhouse Gas Cost of Living, Australia, 1993/94. Department of Applied Physics. Sydney University. 9. Wackenagel, et al 1997. 10. Wackernagel, M, Macintosh, J, Rees, W, and Woodland, R (1993) How Big is Our Ecological Footprint? A Handbook for Estimating a Community’s Carrying Capacity. Discussion Draft. University of British Columbia. Canada. Page2 11. Australian Bureau of Statistics. ABS Cat 6537.0, p13. 12. State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996) Australia: State of the Environment Report. CSIRO Publishing. Collingwood. P 3-18 - Graphic from Travers and Richardson (1993) Living Decently. Melbourne University Press. 13. State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996) Page 3-18 14. ABS Cat 6537.0 15. Metcalf, R (unpub) Canberra’s Ecological Footprint -Equity Issues. Canberra University Research Project. 16. Parker, P (1997) The Dynamics of Japan’s Ecological Footprint 1961-95: Known Trends and Uncertain Future. Conference Paper: Japan Studies Association of Canada. Annual Conference, Toronto. 3-5 October 1997.
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↓ →
← ↑
12. REDUCING CANBERRA’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT Although there can be difficulties with the ecological footprint methodology, as highlighted in the previous chapter, the method still provides a useful tool to encourage the development of new perspectives and approaches to sustainability:
In an ecologically overloaded and inequitable world, only those projects that improve people’s quality of life while reducing humanity’s resource consumption and waste production promote sustainability.1
The ecological footprint highlights how our individual use of resources and land is increasing at the same time as population increases. Estimates of the ecological footprint of the current world population indicate that those of us in the richer countries are already living far beyond the Earth’s carrying capacity - perhaps by a factor of three.2 A strong impetus for undertaking this Canberra ecological footprints project was to use the ecological footprints concept as a way of generating community interest and ideas in reducing our consumption. In this chapter we take a brief look at some of the approaches that could be taken, these are just the tip of the iceberg. How can we change this pattern and reduce our impact on the Earth? The basic message is that we must reduce our consumption of resources and energy and the resultant waste. The possibilities for doing this and moving towards sustainability are great, but they will require us to look at both production and consumption sides of the economy. We will need to: • improve methods of production in all sectors of the economy so that we use the available resources and energy with the highest efficiency; • while reducing our consumption at the individual, community and global levels.
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A Framework for Action It can be helpful to use a framework of spheres of action where we could reduce consumption. There are many ways to divide our overall society into such spheres, the figure below shows one way to do this, comprising the activities of governments and business/industry, and those of individuals and communities. These spheres are interconnected and inseparable. 12.1. The Sectors of Society Interlink Like a Celtic Knot
Business/ Industry
Government
Society
Communities
Individuals
SOCIETY Society can be thought of comprising all the above components as well as the interactions between individuals and groups and all the values and beliefs that underpin our behaviours. How can changes to our “big picture” thinking reduce our ecological footprint? Some of the philosophical bases and values of our culture are currently being challenged on many fronts, for many reasons, including that they lessen our chances of living sustainably. Redefining the Economy The concept of the “economy” which developed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has been based on market forces; the substitution of labour, energy and natural resources; and the ”invisible hand” which magically keeps the system balanced. The economy is thought to have very few limits, and we are all familiar with the economy’s need for constant growth. Within this paradigm, the environment is seen largely as resources to be used.
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Conventional economic development wisdom assumes there are no serious constraints on economic expansion, and that poverty can be alleviated most easily by increasing economic production. This perspective is attractive because it implies that people already enjoying high consumption levels do not have to compromise their lifestyles so that those in need can improve their material standards.3 However, this way of constructing the economy has been challenged by those who have seen the flaws in the system and especially the damage to natural and social capital. Some recent challenging and innovative views include: • • • •
Nature is more than an input to the economy, natural capital is the basis for the economy.4 GDP as a measures of growth and prosperity is inadequate and misleading.5 Unpaid work needs to be included into the economy.6 The famous “invisible hand’ which balances the market can become the “invisible elbow” which creates great inequities.7 • Alternative measures such as the Genuine Progress Indicator provide a far more reliable measure of “progress”.8 • The existing economy is inefficient at providing needed commodities within the available limits, however with new industrial processes and techniques, market principles and taxes can be used to improve sustainability.9 Gradually our view of economics is moving away from where nature is peripheral to one where nature is central. This has been expressed as: The economy is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the environment.10 12.2 Our Changing View of the Economy, Nature and Society Nature
Society
Economy Society Economy
Nature
From Separate Spheres →→→ To Embedded Spheres
Sources: Based on Lowe11 and Wackernagel and Rees.12
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Redefining Wealth With few exceptions, all individuals today wish to live like individuals materially richer than themselves. And all nations aspire to resemble the wealthiest nations.13 For the most part wealth is currently defined as more and better material conditions, but is this really what wealth is? The result of flooding the world with consumer goods is deep human dissatisfaction. Obviously objects alone can never fulfil real human needs and longings....Yet advertising and propaganda have managed to convince the populations of both the overdeveloped and underdeveloped nations that the real meaning of our existence can be found in the simplistic notion that we work to make money in order to buy things that will distract us from having to work.14 Our quality of life is greatly increased through the availability of shared resources like libraries, schools and health care; and of better health due to clean air, food and water and a low level of stress. Changing our concept of a high standard of living, from one that is largely focused on the possession of things to one that values the creation of culture, leisure and social interaction, that is, redefining wealth, will have a large impact on our resource consumption. Rethinking Work and Leisure Although we increasingly think of our economy as service and information oriented, our consumption of resources and energy is ever increasing. For much of history, human and animal labour provided most of the energy for growing food, making houses, transport, goods and services. Since the industrial revolution, we have increasing replaced these traditional energy sources with energy provided from fossil fuels. On the positive side, this has relieved us from drudgery. On the other hand it has also led to the replacement of human cultural activities with entertainment provided by machines. We spend increasing amounts of leisure time gaining the exercise we need, for example driving to a gym to work out rather than using our physical energy to achieve tasks for which we now use machinery and hence fossil fuel energy. A reassessment of our work and leisure patterns may lead to a lowering of consumption as we use our own physical energy more, for example riding a bike to work rather than driving to work and then on to the gym.
Riding a bike can reduce our consumption of resources while keeping us fit.
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Acknowledging the Rights of Other Species One of the results of increasing population and consumption is that we are turning the biomass of the Earth’s species into the biomass of humans and the mass of our goods. The extinction of other species and the loss of habitats is inevitable as a result of humans taking more and more. Acknowledging the rights of other species and extending our sense of responsibility towards their survival is a growing trend. As we learn more about the importance of biodiversity in maintaining the resilience of ecosystems we may develop a philosophy which acknowledges that our own survival depends on the survival of other species.15
Our own survival may depend on protecting the rights of other species
Balancing Competition and Cooperation We hold the concept of competition dear because we perceive it as leading to continual striving to do better and hence continual improvement. This way of thinking is often “justified” by referring to “survival of the fittest” in the natural world. However, cooperation is as essential to all natural systems as competition. Computer simulations of our evolutionary history found that if organisms act only competitively or only cooperatively, then extinction of the whole system occurs rapidly. A balance of both ensured survival for the whole system.16 In order to reduce our ecological footprint, we will need to work together.
As the Earth’s resources shrink and the population grows, cooperation may become as important a social “good” as competition.
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INDUSTRY The range of ways for industry - the production side of the equation - to improve efficiency of resource use and to design products with far less environmental impact and pollution is increasing. These measures will need to go together with the other side of the equation attitudinal and behavioural changes by individuals and society as a whole towards lowered consumption, if we are to not absorb the gains made in production into even greater consumption. For some areas of our consumption resource use is diminishing as technological advances bring new and more efficient ways of doing things. Technologies such as improved crop strains and land management; energy efficient vehicles and production processes; less resource intensive building techniques; and the miniaturisation of communications and computer technologies, may reduce our ecological footprint. Sometimes new technologies and processes do the reverse. An example is the increased petrochemical input into agriculture, which while reducing the area of crop land used, increases the energy and other inputs markedly. Hydroponically grown tomatoes, which appear to use far less resources in terms of growing land, actually use as much as twenty times the space of field tomatoes, when all the other inputs such as nutrients, heating, chemicals, etc, are measured in terms of their ecological footprint.17 Industrial Ecology - Closing the Loop Until recently, industry has been concerned with obtaining raw materials, transforming them into useful products and transporting these products to the consumer. The process has essentially been in a straight line from raw material to consumer. The recent impact of environmental constraints has led to thinking about ways to conduct industry which are closer to the ways that a natural system functions. This means designing industrial processes that move more in circles - where the waste products from one factory can become the raw materials for another, where thought is given to the whole life cycle of the products.18 The increasing development of industrial ecology is likely to lead to reduce consumption and reduced waste.
Closing the loop in industrial processing can reduce our ecological footprint.
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Improved Efficiency Improved efficiency in industry can help reduce our resource consumption. This is illustrated by the range of technological projects outlined in Factor Four19 - the latest report to the Club of Rome, based on the concept of “doubling wealth, while halving resource use”. These projects have identified many simple technological and behavioural ways to use less energy, to use resources more effectively and to improve production processes. If we include farming and forestry as industries, then improved land management practices; conservation of resources and energy; and land restoration can improve production, while reducing the ecological footprint.
Conservation Design Changes in design of products could have a great impact on reducing our resource use. Manufacturers and designers are increasingly asking the following questions early in the design stage of production.
12.3 Manufacturing and Design Questions STEP
QUESTIONS
1
The Finished Product - is it needed? is it useful?
2
The Choice of Materials - including resource and energy use.
3
The Manufacturing Process - is it safe?, does it create unnecessary waste? Can the wastes be reused? How much energy does it use? Packaging the Product - does it need packaging? how many layers? which materials? Transporting the Product - most efficient way to transport, local markets?
4 5 6
Disposing of the Product - recycling potential? Ease of break-up of components? Source: Based on Papanek, 199513
In contrast to the earlier design rule of planned obsolescence, there is a growing interest in designing consumer items which can be easily taken apart and individual parts replaced. The end of life recycling of the product is also greatly facilitated. This trend is called design for disassembly or DFD. Motor vehicles are an example of a complex consumer item, constructed of many parts and made of many materials. The body of a used car, usually consists of a mixture of glass, metals, paints, shellacs, plastics and fillers - which have been screwed, glued, welded and soldered. Recycling of such an item can be very difficult and after the easily retrievable components are removed, the remainder is usually consigned to landfill. The use of systems such as pop-in pop-out rivets, two way fasteners, can improve the recyclability of cars.21
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INDIVIDUALS What can one person do? There are plenty of actions that individuals can take to reduce the ecological footprint. Most household “how to be green” books include methods for using less energy and resources - the first step towards reducing the ecological footprint. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle There has been no shortage of information about reducing consumption and environmental impact in recent years, the “reduce, reuse, recycle” phrase has encapsulated the concept well. Interestingly, in Canberra we have embraced the “recycle” part of the phrase, without paying much attention it seems to the “reduce” and “reuse” parts. The Power of the Purse As consumers we can exercise our powers of choice when buying consumer items. The following figure shows how a potential purchase can be considered from a number of viewpoints to help us make a decision which will reduce our ecological footprint.
12.4 Questions to Ask Before Buying a New Consumer Item. STEP
QUESTIONS
1
2
Do I really need it? this is the hardest question, and the list of questions raised under design and manufacture may help decide how essential it is to buy any given item. If the answer is yes, then the following questions can also be asked: Which the most reliable, durable variety?
3
Can I buy it second-hand?
4
Can I borrow it?
5
Can I rent or lease it?
6
Can I share it?
7
Can we own it as a group? Based on Papanek, 1995.22
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Overlapping Ecological Footprint Land Categories From the point of view of the ecological footprint, we could also thinks about overlapping our footprint types. For example, growing food in backyards and on vacant lots and balconies, etc, is a way to overlap component of the footprint. Provided there is not large transport usage to bring in fertilisers, and if the food wastes, are composted, then this sort of small scale locally based agriculture could reduce our food, housing, transport, recreation and waste footprints.
Another approach is to overlap different parts of the footprint and hence reduce the total.
Individual Estimations of the Ecological Footprint An individual or household can undertake to estimate their own ecological footprint by keeping a record of all the goods and services consumed. Wackernagel23 has developed a proforma to assist households to measure all the items purchased, together with predetermined values to convert these quantities into the ecological footprints land use categories. Such an immediate measure of the ecological footprint can provide guidance about areas where consumption can be reduced most effectively. Individual ecological footprint measurement is also being undertaken by researchers at Griffith University.24
My ecological footprint for this week is......
By keeping a regular record of our consumption, we can work to reduce our ecological footprint.
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Reducing Our Ecological Footprint Most individuals and families are able to make choices about what we eat, where we live, what we buy. The table below shows a range of choices that can either increase or decrease our ecological footprint, based largely on research into the energy embodied in our consumption.25,26 These choices apply to communities everywhere, and could be used to reduce Canberra’s ecological footprint. 12.5 Some Ways to Reduce Our Ecological Footprint
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
• Much meat and dairy. • Much frozen foods. • Imported • foods.
• Large. • Poor siting. • Poor insulation. • Energy expensive materials. • Overheating/ cooling.
FOOD
HOUSING
• Less meat and dairy. • More fresh foods. • Locally produced.
• Compact. • Solar passive siteing. • Good insulation. • Less energy intensive building materials. • Modest heating/ cooling.
Increasing our Ecological Footprint
• Large, inefficient car. • Multiple vehicles.
• Focus on fashion/ latest on market. • Individual ownership of many items. • Many imported goods.
• Overseas holidays by air. • Consume “culture” eg CDs, videos, TVs, etc.
TRANSPORT
CONSUMER GOODS
SERVICES
• Efficient car. • Essential car trips only. • Good maintenance schedule. • High public transport use. • High bike use and walking. • No car.
• Focus on essentials. • Group/shared ownership of appliances. • Energy efficient appliances. • Locally produced goods.
• Local nonair travel holidays. • Create culture - eg music art, theatre, etc.
Category
Decreasing our Ecological Footprint
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
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COMMUNITIES The term “communities” can include various kinds of collections of individuals, such as residents in a local community, non-government organisations, community groups. Groups of people with similar goals or with interlinking infrastructure or facilities can be thought of as communities, which can range in size from small neighbourhood to global groups. Most communities work together and share resources to some extent. In his book, The Green Imperative, Papanek describes an informal survey he undertook to find out how many portable appliances such as vacuum cleaners, lawn mowers, irons, hair dryers, etc were owned by people in his close neighbourhood. The quantities were staggering, especially given that many items were used infrequently and were rapidly superseded by newer models. He instigate a sharing pool for some of these appliances. The potential for similar “appliance pools” would appear to be high in close-knit neighbourhoods, providing a way to simultaneously reduce our consumption, save money and build connections with our neighbours. Community initiatives to reduce consumption and waste are as many and as diverse as communities themselves: • Car pooling to reduce transport energy use and costs; • Food coops to reduce packaging and costs; • Waste reduction and recycling programs, such as Canberra’s “Revolve”; • Co-housing projects, sharing costs; living and recreational space; and large appliances; • Monitoring government programs to help guide policy directions; • Monitoring environmental indicators such as air and water quality; • Protecting wildlife habitat and sensitive lands.
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GOVERNMENT Governments at all levels have the roles of creating order and stability and ensuring that society moves in the direction desired by the community. There is enormous potential for governments to make a contribution to reducing our combined ecological footprint through its usual processes of making policies, legislation, and programs. Governments also have the role of collecting taxes and using these funds to improve conditions for all in the community, part of this role includes redirecting wealth to ensure a more equitable society. Some of this wealth could be used to assist a move towards sustainable living. There is enormous potential for incentives for environmentally friendly, efficient projects and industries. At the time of writing this report, the Australian community is debating the merits of replacing the current income tax system with a Goods and Services Tax (GST). While there would appear to be likely environmental benefits from taxing consumption, this would be done most effectively by placing the highest taxes on the most environmentally expensive commodities. The recent, unpopular, proposals for a carbon tax were an example of using taxation measures to alter our environmental impacts. Detailed ecological footprint analysis of commodity items could provide a scale for such taxation. Government can assist in reducing the ecological footprint through a range of measures, including: • Funding research into ways to reduce consumption, including renewable energy technologies; industrial ecology processes; land protection; etc; • Supporting pilot studies and best practice initiatives which reduce consumption; • Promoting a lifestyle with more creation of culture and less consumption of material resources, through programs and advertising campaigns; • Developing policies that support reducing consumption such the Ecologically Sustainable Development policy of the early 1990s; • Changing the focus of subsidies to business and industry to those that encourage reduced consumption; • Taxing goods and services that have a high consumption of resources and/or adverse environmental impact; • Promoting services and activities that use less and encourage communities to “do more with less”, eg. libraries, public transport, concert halls, etc. • Funding and encouraging urban and traffic planning to reduce the footprint. • Initiating and supporting international agreements which protect biodiversity, reduce consumption and resource use. • Funding and encouraging land management practices which protect and enhance farming lands, soils, water and biodiversity.
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References and Notes 1. Wackernagel M (1997) Ecological Footprints of Nations. Earth Council. New Mexico 2. Wackernagel, M and Rees,W (1996) Our Ecological Footprint. Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. New Society Publishers. Philadelphia. Pages 13-16. 3. Wackernagel, M and Rees,W (1996). Page100 4. Prugh, T (1995) Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival. International Society for Ecological Economics. Solomons MD. 5. Henderson, H (1991) Paradigms of Progress: Life Beyond Economics. Adamantine Press Ltd. London. 6. Waring, M (1988) Counting for Nothing. Allen and Unwin. Wellington. 7. Jacobs, M (1991) The Green Economy: Environment, Sustainable Development and the Politics of the Future. Pluto Press. 8. Hamilton, C in Eckersley, R (1998) Measuring Change: Is Life Getting Better? CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood Vic. 9. Weizacker, von E, Lovins, AB and Lovins LH (1997) Factor Four - Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use. The New Report to the Club of Rome. Earthscan Publications Ltd. London. 10. Comment by Dr Peter Raven of the Australian Museum, during an interview for the Science Show, Radio National, 17 August 1998. 11. Ian Lowe, Professor at Griffith University, Brisbane 12. Wackernagel, M and Rees,W (1996). Page 8. 13. Socolow, R. “Six Perspectives from Industrial Ecology” in Socolow, R, Andrews, C; Berhout, F, and Thomas, V. (1994) Industrial Ecology and Global Change. University Press. Cambridge. 14. Papanek, V (1995) The Green Imperative: Ecology and Ethics in Design and Architecture. Thames and Hudson. London. Page186. 15. State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996) Australia: State of the Environment Report. CSIRO Publishing. Collingwood. Page ES-13. 16. Waldrop, M. M. (1992) Complexity: the Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos. Simon and Schuster. New York. 17. Wada,Y (1993) The Appropriated Carrying Capacity of Tomato Production: The Ecological Footprint of Hydroponic Greenhouse versus Mechanised Open Field Operations. MA Thesis. In Wackernagel and Rees (1996). 18. Graedel, T.E and Allenby, B.R (1995) Industrial Ecology. Prentice Hall. New Jersey. 19. Weizacker, von E, Lovins, AB and Lovins LH (1997) 20. Papanek (1995). 21. Papanek (1995). Pages 58-9. 22. Papanek (1995). 23. Wackernagel, M (1996) How to Calculate Your Household’s Ecological Footprint Draft. E-mail:
[email protected]. 24. Anna Petroeschevsky, pers com 25. Noorman, KJ and Moll, H (1998) Energy Flows in Ecology and Economy: from Methodological Approaches to Real life Applications. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Advances in Energy Studies, Energy Flows in Ecology and Economy. May 26-30 1998 Porto Venere, Italy 26. Lenzen, M (1997) The Energy and Greenhouse Gas Cost of Living, Australia, 1993/94. Department of Applied Physics. Sydney University.
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